Varieties of words

The word as well as any linguistic sign is a twofaced unit possessing both forms. And content / sound form and meaning. A word cat is a word because it has a lexical meaning and the grammatical meaning of the common case singular. When used in actual speech the word undergoes certain modifications and functions in one of its forms the system showing a word in all its word forms is called its paradigm. The lexical meaning of a word is the same throughout the paradigm. In other words all the word forms of one of the same word are lexically identical. On the other hand the grammatical meaning various from one form to another(cat-cats-cat’s). There fore when we speak of a word writer as used in actually utterances (his brother is a well-known writer) we use the term word conventionally because what is manifested in the speaker band isn’t the word as a hole. But one of its forms which is identified as belonging to one definite paradigm. Besides the grammatical forms of words some scholars’ distinguish lexical variants which they name variants of words. We may speak about 2 basic groups of variants of words. In actual speech a word is used in one of its meanings. Such a word in one of its meanings is called lexical semantic variant. Group 1 comprises lexis variants that is polysemantic words in each of their meanings. Group 2 comprises phonetic and morphological variants. (Often and often; learn-learned-learned). It may be easily observed that a slight change in the morphemic or phonemic composition of a word is not connected with any modifications of its meaning and vise versa a changing meaning is not followed by any structural changes either morphemic / phonemic. Like word-forms variants of words are identified in the proses of the communication as making up one and the same word. Thus with in the language system the word exists as a system and unity of all its forms and variants.

Modals of words and approaches to the problem of meaning – l 2

Saussure’s model.

In modern linguistics Saussure was the first scholar to consider language as a structure system of signs. In Saussure view of language as a system of signs, sign and system are mutually conditioning as a sign only derives its value from within the system on the bases of its relation to other signs. For him the linguistic sign itself has 2 sides: a giving notion (concept) that is associated in the brain with a certain phonic image (image acoustic). Both mutually conditioning and awoke each other mutually. Saussure stresses repeatedly that the linguistic sign is a mental unit and doesn’t link a theme and a name but a concept and a phonic image. This image is for him nothing material physical but a mental impression of a sound. Saussure postulated 2 principals: the arbitrariness of the sign; the linear character of the significant (the term which was introduced by Saussure and replaced the term image acoustic). For him the relations between the two sides of the linguistic sign is fondomendaly arbitiarule nonmotivated / conventional. For Saussure linguistic sign bilateral since it consents of 2 parts: it’s meaning its content is defined as a concept and there for as a sociological / mental entirety. S consequently uses of binary mentalistic model of the sign abstracted from the uses and the functions of the sign. In his model the extralinguistic sign isn’t included.

Ogden Richards’ semiotic triangle.

There is no direct relationship between the word / symbol or the extra linguistic thing / referent denoted by it. This is symbolised by the broken line connecting two corners which Ogden Richards characterised as imputed relation saying that the symbol stands for the referent. The relationship between the two corners is indirect and mediated by a concept / thought which Richard also label reference. Since in this scheme a psychological / mental entity and mainly thought players a role we have a mentalistic model here too. S binary model of the sign is expended in the semiotic triangle into a triadic model with a corners symbol thought referent. However this model steel excluses the speaker and the hearer. Thus both models the autterian and triangle S and R are non-pragmatic as they abstracted from the uses of the sign.

Bühler’s

B. proposed his model of the sign in the book “Sprach theory of linguistic theory”, published in 1944. His theory views language and it signs as a tool / organan. Diagram has to be understood in the following way. The sign in the center links a send with an address normally a hear and the represented objects and relations. The connecting lines between the sign and 3 elements symbolize the 3 most important functions of the complex sign that is language and namely expression also call a multifunction; representation also called referential function; the peel – vocative function. Language as well as the individual sign is the organic that is an instrument / tool for its uses hence the name of the B linguistic modal.

Two approaches to the problem of meaning

The meaning is a notational term which becomes particularly clear if we look at O.R book the title THE MEANING OF MEANINGS where a list of 22 definitions of meaning is given. There is certainly no single correct explanation of meanings. Lyons distinguishes 3 kind of meaning: meaning / semantic information and namely descriptive meaning, social and expressive. For him they correlated with the descriptive social and expression functions of language. Leech identified meaning in the widest sense with communicative value.

Semasiology

The branch of lexicology that is devoted to the study of meaning is known as semasiology. Meaning is one of the most controversial terms in the theory of language and there is no universally accepted of meaning. There are 2 main approaches to meaning in modern linguistics. The referential approach is established by the interdependence between words and themes / concepts they denote. The functional approach studies the functions of a word in speech and is less concerned with what meaning is than how it works. All meaning works on semantic theory have been based on referential concepts of meaning. The essential feature of this approach is to distinguish correlation between the 3 components closely connected with meaning. The sound form, the concert and the referent. The complex relationships between these 3 components are traditionally represented by the triangle best known as O. and R. the common features of any referetchial broche is the imprecation that meaning is in some form / other connected with the referent / object. It is easily observed that the sound word of the word is not identical with its meaning. The connection is conventional and arbitrary. This can be easily illustrated by comparing the sound forms / words in different languages convey one in the same meaning (dog). It can also be prove by comparing almost identical sound forms that possessive different meaning in different languages. The sound cluster (bag) in the E means to ask somebody to do smth, but in R. the same bust cluster denotes the meaning the approves of movement бег. The arbitrary nature?????is also proved by comparing homonyms. Besides if meaning were in heartily connected with the sound form?????it would follow that a change in sound form would awake a change of meaning. But we know perfectly well that even considerable change in the sound form of a word in the cause of its historical development don’t necessarily affects its meaning.

Meaning and concepts

There is also no full identity between meaning and concepts. Concept is the category of human cognition, concept is the thought of the object that singles out in essential features. Our concepts abstract and reflect the most common and typical features of the different objects and phenomena is the word. All concepts are almost the same or the call humanity in one in the same period of its historical development. The meaning of words in different lang are different. The difference between meaning and concept can also be observed by comparing synonyms words and word groups expressing essentially the same concepts but possessing linguistic meaning which is spelt as different in each of the units of those groups (big, large, huge).

Referent and meaning

There is also no identity between meaning and referent. Meaning is linguistic phenomena but they denoted object / the referent is beyond the scope of language. We can denote one of the same objects by more than one word of a different meaning. In a speech situation a table can be denoted by the words may “have the same referent”.

Functional approaches.

An entirely different approach to meaning known as a functional approach was introduced in structural linguistics. The functional approach maintains that the meaning of a linguistic unit may be studied only through its relation to other linguistic units and not through it relation to either concept / referent. In a very simplified form this view may be illustrated by the following. We know for instance that the meaning of 2 words to develop and development is different because their function in speech differently. Comparing the context in which we find these words we may see that this occupy the different position in relation to other words. To develop can be followed by a noun(to develop industry), preceded by a pronoun. The position occupied by the word development in different. It may be followed by a preposition development of smth. As the distribution of the 2 words is different it may be stated that not only they belong to different classes of words but that their meanings are different too. The same procedure may be used for analyzing the meaning of polysemantic words. We can observe the difference of the meanings of the word take if we examine its functions in different linguistic context. To sum up we may say that in the functional approach semantic investigation is confined to the analyses of the difference for sameness of meaning. Meaning is understood essentially as the function of the use of lying units.

Types of meaning –L 3

Word meaning isn’t homogeneous but is made up of varies components. The combination and the interrelation of these components determine the inner faced of the word. These components are usually called TYPES OF MEANING. There are 2 main types of meaning: grammatical and lexical. These types of meanings are found in words and word forms. We may notice that word forms such as boys, desks; toys though denoting quit different objects of reality have smth in common. This common element is grammatical meaning of plurality which can be finding in all of them. The grammatical meaning may be defined as the component of meaning recurrent in identical sight of individual forms of different words. Besides grammatical meaning there is another component of meaning which is found in all the forms of the word. The word forms goes, went, going, gone poses different gram meaning of tense, voice but in each of this forms we find one semantic component denoting the proses of movement. The lexical meaning of the word is the component of meaning proper to the word as a lying unit. That recurrent in all the forms of this word. The difference between the lexical and the grammatical components of meanings cannot be found in the difference of the concerts underline the 2 types of the meaning but in the way they are expressed.????????? . by lexical meaning we designate the meaning proper to the giving lying unit in all its forms and distribution while by gram meaning we designate the meaning proper to sets of word forms common to all words of a certain class. The lexicology and the grammar meaning make up the word meaning. Lexical items are usually classified into manger word classes and minor word classes. All members of a mayor word class have a distinguishing semantic component viewed as the lexicology component the part of speech meaning. The meaning of fanners / substantiality may be found in all the nouns and they poses different gram meanings of number case etc. the gram aspect of the part of speech meaning is conveyed by a set of forms. If we describe a word as a noun we mean that it should poses a set of forms express it gram meaning of number. The part of speech meaning of the word that poses only one form is observed only in their distribution. The interrelation of the lexical and gram meanings and the role played by each various indifferent word classes and even in different groups of words with in one of the same class. In some part of speech the prevailing component is the gram type of meaning. The lexical meaning of some preposition may be comparatively distinct. In words the lexical meaning prevails also in some of them (to be) the grammatical meaning ????.

Denotation and conational meaning. (Денотат – референт – предмет)

Lexical meaning is not homogenous and may be analyzed as including denotational meaning. One of the functions of words is to denote things. Though who use the language cannot have any knowledge / thought of the objects/phenomena of the real words unless this knowledge is an boarded in words which have a sensual the same meaning for all people of that language. The denotation of meaning is that company of the lexical meaning which makes communication possible.

The second component of lexical meaning is the conational component that is the impotent charge and the stylistic value of the words. The impotent charge is more the objective semantic features proper to words as linguistic units and parts of the conational component of meaning. It should be confused with the motive implications that the words may get in speech. The emotive implication of the word is to a great extend subjective as it greatly depends of the personal experience of the speaker. Words devote of any emotional element may possessed in the case of an individual speaker (hospital – impotent application).

Words defer not only in their emoted charge but also in their stylistic reference. They can be subdivided into literally, neutral and colloquial words.

The great of parts of the literally words are words of general use. Poses known specific stylistic reference and known as neutral words. Besides we can speak about stand and colloquial words and literally bookish words. This may be passed illustrated by comparing words almost identical in the denotational meaning. (Parent – father – dad: in comparison of the word father which is stylistically neutral dad is colloquial and parent is felt as bookish). The stylistic reference of standard colloquial words is clearly observed when we compare them with a neutral synonym. (Chum – friend)

Literally (bookish words) are not stylistically homogeneous besides general words, literally words may be single out very specific subgroups, namely:

1. Terms/scientific words – teletype

2. Poetic words and archaism – morn – morning

3. Barbarism and falling words

The colloquial words can be sub divided into:

1. common colloquial words

2. slang

3. professionalism – used in narrow groups bound by the same occupation

4. jargonizes – marks by their use in their unparticular social group

5. vulgarism – are course words are not generally use in public (dam)

6. dialectical – there are spread on a certain territory

7. Colloquial – coinages.