1. General : :special / particular

The general meaning are course in varies in vainly different concepts. Special are observed only in certain contacts.

Central /main: main/periphery

The meaning that first course to us when we hear the cluster of sounds : the most frequent meaning of the word is the central one. All other meanings are mine in comparison.

Primary: secondary/dared

According to the tradition of lexicology the primary meaning is placed first in the dictionary. When we describe the meaning of the word in secondary we employ that it couldn’t have peered before the primer meaning existed. When we referred to the meaning as derived we employ not only that but also that it is dependent on the primary meaning and somehow subordinate to it. In the word table the primary meaning is a piece of furniture but the meaning the foot put on the table is secondary as it is derived at the first one.

Direct: figurate

The meaning is direct when it nominates the referent without the help of the contact / insolation. The meaning is figurative when the object is named and at the same time characters through its similarity with another object. Mouth – the mouth of the river. If we are interested in the historical aspect the meaning will be classified according to the genetic characteristics. Here the following terms are used:

1. Etymological that is the earliest known meaning.

2. Archie that is the meaning superseded at present by a new one still remaining

3. Obsolete – garn out of views

4. Present day meaning which is the most frequent in the present

5. The original meaning is used as the bases of the derived ones

Homonyms.

Homonyms are words different in meaning but identical in sound/spelling/both.

Classifications:

Walter Skeat classified homonyms according to their spelling and sound forms and he pointed out 3 groups:

1. Perfect homonyms – words identical in sound and spelling.

2. Homographs – words with the same spelling but pronounced differently. boll

3. Homophorms – words pronounced identically but spelled differently. Night, knight.

Another classification was suggested by A.Smirnitskiy. He added to Skeat’s classifications one more criteria grammatical meaning. He subdivided the group of perfect homonyms in its classifications into 2 types of homonyms. Perfect this is identical of their spelling, pronunciation and its meaning. Homophorms which count sight in its spelling and pronunciation but have different grammatical meaning (reading, geral, participle 1, verbal now).

A more detailed classification was worked douc by professor I.Arnoled. she classified only perfect homonyms according to skids classification and suggested for criteria of their classification. Lexical meaning, grammatical meaning, basic forms and perfidies. According to this criteria Arnold pointed out the following groups:

1. Homonyms identical in their grammatical meanings, basic forms and periderms and different in their lexical meanings. (board in the meaning of causal and a piece of word)

2. -||- and basic forms but different in their lexical meanings and periderms. (to lie and to lay)

3. Homonyms different in their lexical meanings grammatical meanings periderms but coin siding in their basic forms. (light as a noun and light as an adjective)

4. Homonyms different in their lexical meanings grammatical meanings in their basic forms and periods. But coin sighting in one of the forms of their periods. (a bit as a noun and a bit as a word to bite).

In Arnold’s classification there are also petals which differences from other homonyms have a component in their lexical meanings. These are homonyms formed either by means of convention\by leveling of grammar inflexions. These homonyms are different in their grammatical meanings in their paradigms but identical in their basic forms. (Warm to warm). Here we can also have unchangeable pert of ???which have identical basic forms, different grammatical meanings and a common component in their lexical meanings. There are also homonyms amount unquenchable words which are different in their lexical and grammatical meanings but identical in their basic forms.

Sources of homonyms. Some of them is phonetic change which words under go in the course of their historical development. As a result of such changes 2 or more words which are formally pronounced differently may developed identical sound words and thus become homonyms. Boring is another source of homonyms. Word building also contributes significally to the growth of phoneme and the most important type of this aspect is undauntedly conversion. Shotonem is a further type of word building which increases a number of homonyms. Rep has 3 homonyms – reparatory; reputation. Words may sound imitation can also form pairs of homonyms with other words. Mew-the sound of cats. Mews – small house in London.

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Semantic classification.

Word meaning can be understood through into linguistic relations that ices between words. There are 2 main types of such relations: syntagmatic and paradigmatic. Syntagmatic relations defined the meaning the word poses when it is used in combination with other words in the flow of speech.

He got a letter. He got to London. He got tired.

Paradigmatic relations are thou that ices between individual lexical items which make up one of the sub-groups of vocabulary items. Sets of synonyms, lexical semantic groups. Paradigmatic relations defend the word meaning through its interrelation with other members of the sub group in question.

He got a letter. He received a letter.

Conceptual/semantic field.

Words may be classified according to the concepts underline their meaning. This classification is closely connected with the theory of conceptual fielder. By the turn semantic fields is understood closely nit sects of vocabulary itch characterized by a common concept. Blue, Red, Yellow, Broun.

The members of the semantic fields are not synonyms but more of them are joining together by some common semantic component. This semantic component common to all members of the field is called THE COMMON DEMONINATER OF MENAING. All members of the field are semantically indo depended in itch member helps to delimit and determine the meaning of its neighbors and is semantically delimited and detuned by them. It follows that the word meaning is to a great extend determine by the place of its occupies in its semantic fields. The semantic fields is a sat of lexical items in which the meaning of itch is determined by the call presence of the others. There may be comparatively small lexical grouse of words belonging to the same part of speech. There are limped by a common consent too. Such smaller lexical groups consisting of the same parts of speech are usually called lexical semantic groups. The criteria of join words together into semantic fields and lexical semantic groups are the identity of one of the components of their meaning. This component is found in all the lexical units making up these lexical groups. Any of semantic components may be chosen to represent the group.

Hyponymy.

Another approach to the classification to vocabulary items into lexical semantic groups is the study of the highponimic relation between words. By hyponymy is semantic relationship of inclusion. The hyponymic relationship may be viewed as a hieratical relationship between the meaning of the general and the individual terms. The general term (tree, animal, flower) is sometimes referred to as a classifier and source to describe the lexical semantic groups. The individual terms contain the meaning of the general term in addition to their individual meanings which distinguish them from each other. Another way to describe hyponymy is a terms of genius and differential. The more specific term is called the hyponym and the more general – the classifier/ hiperonym.

Synonymy and synonyms.

Lexical units may also be classified by the criteria of the semantic similarity. Synonymy is often understood as semantic equivalents. Semantic equivalents can exist between words and word groups, word groups and sentences. Sentences and sentences. The terms synonymy and synonyms should be confined to semantic relation between words only. Similar relation between words group and sentences are called semantic equivalents. Synonyms may be found in different type of speech and both of motional and functional words. Synonyms are traditionally described as words different in sound words but identical. This definition was similar????? its seems impossible to speak of identical of words as such as this part of the definition cannot be applied to polysemantic words. Polysemantic words can have their synonyms in all their meanings. Its seems impossible to speak identity as a hole. It is the only the denotation component that may be described as identical. It doesn’t seem possible to speak of identity of meaning as a criteria of synonymy because identity of meaning is very rear even a moan molysementic words. Words in synonymic sets are in general differentiated because of some elements of opposition in itch member of set. Synonym are words different in sound form but similar of their denotational meaning/meanings.

Vinogradov established the classification of synonyms. It consists of 3 types of synonyms:

1. Ideographic which convey the same notion but differ in shades of meaning.

2. Stylistic they differ in stylistic characteristics.

3. Absolute they coin sigh in all their shades of meaning and in all the stylistic characteristics.

Stylistic synonyms can a pair of abbreviation. Examination-exam.

Among stylistic synonyms we can point out the special group of words which are called EFINIMS. These are words which are used to substitute some unpleasant/offensive words. There is also slang synonyms there are expressive, mostly ironical words, serving to create fresh names for some things that are frequently used. (Handbag, nut, upperstorey, mad, portly, loony, touched, nutty). Stylistic synonyms can be connected with different strata of modern society. We can identify to what group a person belongs by the vocabulary which is used in his speech. U people – upper class people. U people and noun-u people use different words to denote identical notion. (Luncher and lunch). There also phraseological synonyms these are words identical in their meanings and styles but different in their combine believed it in other sentence. There are also contextual synonyms which are similar in meaning only under some specific distributional conditions.

I’ll go to the shop and buy some bread.

I’ll got to the shop and bring some bread.

The peculiar features of English synonyms is the contrasted between simple native words which are stylistically neutral, literally words borrowed from French, and learned words of greeko-latin origin. To end, to finish, teaching, instruction.

Antonyms.

Antonyms are words belonging to the same part of speech identical in style expressing contrary/ contradictory notations. Komessarov in his dictionary of a.classified them into 2 groups: absolute/antonyms rude and derivational.

Absolute antonyms have different roots and derivational antonyms have the same roods but different affixes. The different between derivational and rood antonyms is not only in their structure but in semantics as well. Derivational antonyms express contradictory notions one of them excludes the other (active inactive). Absolute antonyms express contradictories. If some notions can be arrange in group of 2 members the most distant members of the group will be absolute A. a set of words: ugly, plain, good-looking, pretty, beautiful.

Classification L.Lipka

Lipka in the book outline of English lexicology describes different types of o???an d subdivide them into 3 types:

1. Complementarity (mail, female)

2. Antonyms (good, bad)

3. Conversness (to buy, to sell)

In his classification he describes complementarity in the following way. The denial of the one implies the assertion of the other and wise versa. Jon isn’t married implies the john is symbol. The type of oppositeness is based on yes/no decision. A.is a 2 class of oppositeness it is distinguished from complementarity by been based on different logical relationships. The assertion containing one member implies the negation of the other but not wise versa. John is good implies that john is not bad but john is not good doesn’t imply that john is bad. The negation of one term doesn’t necessary imply the assertion of the other. An important linguistic different from complimentary is that that antonyms are always folly gradable. Hot, warm, tippet, cold. Conversness is mirror image relations/functions. Husband, wife, pupil, teacher.