Example:

We bring prior knowledge to everything we read, whether we are aware of it or not. Titles of texts, authors' names, and the topic of the piece all trigger prior knowledge in us. Discussing the subject with classmates before you read is also a good idea. The more prior knowledge we have, the better prepared we are to make meaning of the text.

With prior knowledge we make predictions, or guesses about how what we are reading relates to our prior experience. We also make predictions about what meaning the text will convey. It is alright to make wrong guesses about what a text will do – wrong guesses are just as much a part of the meaning-making process of reading as right guesses are.

Skimming means moving very quickly through the whole passage or text to get a general understanding of what it is about. You read as little as you can, while still picking up some idea of what is being discussed.

When your immediate concern is not to read the whole text carefully, but to skim it, one of the techniques that can be employed is focusing on key words and ideas, which the text is likely to contain.

Several textual clues are there to help you. The first is in the print itself. Often important points are highlighted in a text by the use of capital letters or bold print (type). These devices are designed to make certain words stand out from the page.

When you are scanning a text you are looking for some specific information which you know, or suspect, is there.

Approaches

Psychologists

Psychologists’ contributions

Key concepts

Definitions of key concepts

Structuralism

Wilhelm Wundt

established the first lab of psychology in 1879

introspection

the systematic self-observation of one’s conscious experience

Functionalism

Behavioral approach

Psychoanalytical approach

Humanistic approach

Cognitive approach

Biopsychological approach

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MODULE 1: THE EVOLUTION OF PSYCHOLOGY

The following is an overview of the evolution of psychology. It provides a general guideline as to key terms and people.

EARLY FOCUS: STRUCTURALISM VERSUS FUNCTIONALISM

The first two major schools of thought, STRUCTURALISM and FUNCTIONALISM, began the “battle” of many competing₁ schools of thought about what psychologists should study. Wilhelm Wundt established the first lab in 1897 to explore the “contents” or “structure” of thought through INTROSPECTION, the systematic self-observation of one’s conscious experience. William James, the architect₂ of FUNCTIONALISM, disagreed with this approach in his landmark₃ book, Principles of Psychology in 1890, in which he asserted that consciousness is a continuous “stream of consciousness” and therefore should focus on the function or purpose of consciousness₄. His views fostered₅ the development of the modern focus on applied psychology and behaviorism.

BEHAVIORAL CONTRIBUTIONS

John Watson, an early radical behaviorist, assumed behavior was wholly determined by conditions of the environment and searched for environmental rather than internal₆ causes of behavior₇. Ivan Pavlov contributed laws of CLASSICAL CONDITIONING while B.F. Skinner developed OPERANT CONDITIONING theories of the learning process.

The behavioral approach to psychology assumes that man is born a "TABULA RASA", a blank slate, and that behavior is determined by what one has learned. Man's behavior is shaped₈ by the ENVIRONMENT and one's behavior can be predicted from one's learning history and environmental determinants of behaviors such as REINFORCERS.

Behaviorists are not concerned with inner₉ mental processes. Behaviorists consider OBSERVABLE, MEASURABLE BEHAVIOR to be the only valid₁₀ focus for scientific investigation. The main objective is to understand how environmental stimuli “control” particular behaviors. Since environmental stimuli “cause” behavior, Skinner argued that there is no “free will” and that behavior can be investigated and predicted in a “cause-effect” scientific manner by investigating stimuli and responses₁₁.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORISTS such as Albert Bandura focused on the importance of MODELING AND IMITATION in the learning processes. They argued that people may influence the environment just as the environment may influence them.

PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACHES

PSYCHOANALYSIS is Sigmund Freud's PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY that emphasizes the interplay of UNCONSCIOUS MENTAL PROCESSES in determining behavior. As these inner drives₁₂, motives and instinctual energies often clash₁₃, Freud's theory is also known as a CONFLICT APPROACH. INTRAPSYCHIC CONFLICTS between the three parts of Freud's model of the mind, the ID, EGO and SUPEREGO, create anxiety and tension, "causing" the ego to act directly or indirectly through DEFENSE MECHANISMS to reduce anxiety.

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY is also deterministic₁₄. Personality is "determined" not only by unconscious motives and drives but also by early childhood experience and INBORN DRIVES which are largely unconscious. Unconscious sexual drives were a controversial focus of Freud’s theory. Many of his own students disagreed with the focus and developed their own schools of thought as to what was the strongest motivator of human behavior.

NEO-FREUDIANS studied under Freud and developed new ideas to extend the focus of psychoanalytic theory. Alfred Adler emphasized man's striving for superiority and need to compensate for perceived feelings of inferiority. He suggested power dynamics such as BIRTH ORDER often gives us feelings of power or powerlessness in our family ₁₅. Erik Erikson proposed that development occurred throughout an individual's lifespan in response to eight PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISES. Carl Jung proposed that the mind also contains a COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS, a set of memories and capacities representative of the experiences of earlier generations that are a potent₁₆ influence on human behavior.

THE HUMANISTIC REVOLT₁₇

THE HUMANISTIC SCHOOL OF PSYCHOLOGY revolted against both the behavioristic and psychoanalytic schools in the 1950’s, charging₁₈ that both schools were pessimistic, deterministic and “dehumanizing” Humanistic psychology emphasizes personal growth and the achievement of human potential. Considered the "third force" in psychology, the optimistic view of man emphasizes HEALTHY HUMAN BEHAVIOR and FREE WILL. The motivating force is the unique "SELF" that strives to "self-actualize" its inborn potential. Humanists focus on the self-concept, personal feelings, human dignity and free choice. Personal growth and self-fulfillment are natural strivings of our innate good nature, the natural unfolding₁₉ of our unique and precious self.

Carl Rogers emphasized the importance of a positive SELF-CONCEPT and founded CLIENT-CENTERED THERAPY, a non-directive, person-centered relationship that enabled the person to freely explore values, feelings and goals in a climate of acceptance and positive regard provided by the therapist₂₀.

Abraham Maslow spent his lifetime as a humanistic psychologist studying healthy persons who had self-actualized their potential. He identified the characteristics of persons who had fulfilled their potential so that we could understand the process of self-actualization. Humanistic psychologists focused on mental health, wellness, personal growth and “self-development”, so prevalent₂₁ in our “self-help” books that flourish today.

COGNITIVE APPROACHES

The GESTALT SCHOOL OF PSYCHOLOGY focuses on principles of PERCEPTION. This school of thought emphasizes that all psychological phenomena must be studied as a whole "GESTALT" rather than in parts. The "GESTALT", the whole, or "pattern" is more than the sum of its parts. Gestaltists believe we organize stimuli in particular patterns that give them "meaning." Principles such as the relationship of the figure to the background, FIGURE-GROUND RELATIONSHIP, organize our perceptions and give them "meaning".

Fritz Perls developed Gestalt therapy. His therapy focuses on integrating largely disowned₂₂ parts of the self into the "whole" person. One might act out a projection to find one's real feeling, "play" an exaggerated role to discover one's full emotion, "talk to" an empty chair that represents an unacceptable part of self to "reown" one's feelings or unacknowledged desires. Gestalt therapists encourage people to focus on the "here-and-now", to develop full awareness of their feelings and emotions, to resolve past conflicts that are draining their energy so that they can actively control their lives and fully develop their "whole" being and potential.

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY has experienced a recent resurgence₂₃ from the early approach to the study of conscious thought. Today Cognitive Psychology focuses on reasoning and mental processing of information. This currently favored approach to psychology studies processes of the mind such as memory, attention, decision-making, imagery and problem solving. Cognitive psychologists believe our thinking is the key causal factor in behavior.

For instance, Albert Ellis promotes the ABC theory of emotions, that is, it is not A, the activating event that causes C, the consequences, but B, our beliefs, our thoughts about the event. It is not the event or environment that disturbs us, but our thought or beliefs about a situation that creates havoc₂₄ in our lives. NEGATIVE SELF-TALK, IRRATIONAL BELIEFS, CATASTROPHIC THINKING and RIGID THINKING are the real "causes" of our emotional turmoil₂₅, our depressions and our disturbing thoughts.

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGISTS are interested in the way people think about things, the internal mental events that influence how we behave. They believe our behavior is a product of our INTERPRETATION of environmental stimuli that are influenced by our memories from the past which lead us to form EXPECTANCIES of what will happen now₂₆. Cognitive psychologists are developing objective methods to study mental processing and decision-making. Others such as Beck are focusing on therapeutic applications to problems like depression.

BIOPSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES

Recently a renewed focus on the BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE has arisen from the advances of medical science and biochemistry. It has become obvious that there are strong relationships between the body, the mind and human behavior. Advances in research on the brain, nervous system, mental illness, genetics and psychopharmacology have stimulated vast research into the way our bodies affect our minds and vice versa. Advocates₂₇ of the Biopsychological Perspective argue that much of human behavior can be explained in terms of bodily processes and structures, genetics and biochemical processes. Numerous advances have been made in areas such as the treatment of mental illness through the interchange of ideas of psychology and biological sciences.

These are some of the major schools of thought in the science of psychology. Each school shares major assumptions and approaches to research. Many psychologists are ECLECTIC and develop their own theories and methods of study from a mixture of viewpoints and schools. More than 50% of therapists consider themselves to be ECLECTIC.

(Module 1: The evolution of psychology. (n.d.). Retrieved February

2, 2004, from http://inst.santafe.cc.fl.us/~mwehr/StudyGM/MOD1.htm)

1. What does ‘competing’ mean here? Hint: easy to guess if you know the word ‘competition’ + immediate context.

2. ‘Architect’ isn’t used in its literal meaning here. What does it mean?

3. ‘landmark’ literally means ‘веха , ориентир’ What does it mean here?

4. Analyze the sentence, identifying its independent and dependent clauses.

5. ’Foster’: help to happen or prevent from happening?

6. ‘Internal’ is opposed to ‘environmental’ in this context, so what does it mean?

7. Analyze the sentence, identifying its independent and dependent clauses.

8. 'shape': noun or verb? What does it mean?

9. Considering the previous paragraphs, work out the meaning of ‘inner’.

10. ‘Valid’ has two meanings: legally acceptable & based on what is logical or true. Which meaning is it used with here?

11. Analyze the sentence, identifying its independent and dependent clauses.

12. ‘drives’: noun or verb? Does it mean ‘a journey in a car’ or ‘instinct’?

13. What is ‘clash’? Hint: the word ‘conflict’ in the immediate context

14. What does ‘deterministic’ mean here?

15. Analyze the sentence, identifying its independent and dependent clauses.

16. ‘potent’: noun, verb or adjective? Is there a similar word in your mother tongue? What does it mean?

17. What is ‘revolt’? Hint: ‘revolution’

18. ‘to charge’ has a lot of meanings. Which meaning is it used here with?

• to ask an amount of money for goods or a service ;

• to accuse sb publicly of doing sth wrong or bad;

• to rush forward and attack sb/sth

19. What does ‘unfolding’ mean? Hint: ‘to unfold’= to gradually make sth known to other people

20. Analyze the sentence, identifying its independent and dependent clauses.

21. ‘prevalent’: cognate or false friend?

22. What does ‘disowned’ mean here? Hint: contrast in the context : ‘integrate’

23. Can you work out the meaning of ‘resurgence’ here?

24. ‘havoc’ : a lot of damage & disorder or benefit & order?

25. Consider the context and work out the meaning of ‘turmoil’.

26. Analyze the sentence, identifying its independent and dependent clauses.

27. ’advocate’: ‘lawyer’ or ‘supporter’ here?

28. What does ‘eclectic’ mean? Hint: ‘эклектический’ + context: ‘mixture of viewpoints and schools’

word

transcription

definition

translation

nouns

A188

1. advocate [C]

[+ of]

[+ for]

1. sb who publicly supports a particular way of doing things

2. a person who defends sb in a court of law

A177

2. application [C,U]

[+ to sb]

[+ for sth ]

[~ to do sth]

1. a formal (often written) request for sth, such as a job, permission to do sth or a place at a college or university

[+ of ] [C,U]

[+ to ]

2. the practical use of sth, esp. a theory, discovery, etc

[U]

3. the act of making a rule, etc. operate or become effective

A143

3. awareness [U,sing.]

[+ that ]

1. knowledge or understanding of a particular subject or situation

[+ of ]

2. the ability to notice sth using your senses

A28

4. environment [C,U]

1. the conditions that affect the behaviour and development of sb/sth; the physical conditions that sb/sth exists in

the environment [sing.]

2. the natural world in which people, animals and plants live:

A60

5. motive [C]

[+ for]

the reason that makes sb do sth, esp. when this reason is kept hidden

A181

6. perspective [C]

[+ on ]

a particular attitude towards sth; a way of thinking about sth

A127

7. *phenomenon [C]

plural phenomena

a fact or an event in nature or society, especially one that is not fully understood

A49

8. *response [C,U]

[+ to]

1. a reaction to sth that has happened or been said

[C]

2. a spoken or written answer

A185

9. research [U]

[+ into / on ]

a careful study of a subject, esp. in order to discover new facts or information about it

A44

10. *stimulus [C, usu. singular, U]

[C]

plural stimuli

[+ to / for]

| + to do sth]

1. sth that helps sb/sth to develop better or more quickly

2. sth that produces a reaction in a human being, an animal or a plant

A57

11. theory [C]

1.a formal set of ideas that is intended to explain why sth happens or exists

2.the principles on which a particular subject is based

3.an opinion or idea that sb believes is true but that is not proved

adjectives

A40

12. inner

1. inside; towards or close to the centre of a place; syn internal

2. (of feelings, etc.) private and secret; not expressed or shown to other people; of or relating to the mind or spirit

A

105

13. innate

that you have when you are born

syn inborn

verbs

A40

14. concern [T]

1.to affect sb; to involve sb

also be concerned with sth

2. to be about sth

3. to worry sb

[~ yourself/ be concerned with / about sth]

4. to take an interest in sth

A29

15. contribute [I,T]

[~ sth to sth]

[+ to]

1. to do or give sth, esp. along with others, that helps to achieve a specific purpose or goal

contribute to sth

2.to be one of the factors that causes sth

A27

16. determine [T]

[~ how/what/who etc. / that]

1. to discover the facts about sth

[T]

2. to make sth happen in a particular way or be of a particular type

A31,

A143

17. develop

[I,T] [develop sth]

[+ from]

[ + into]

1. to gradually grow or become bigger, more advanced, stronger, etc.; to make sth do this

[T]

2. to think of or produce a new idea, product, etc. and make it successful

A57

18. emphasize [T]

BrE also emphasise

[ emphasize that]

to show that an opinion, idea, quality etc. is esp. important

A112

19. explore [I, T]

1. to travel around an unfamiliar area to find out what it is like

20. [T]

2. to discuss, examine, or think about sth carefully

A21

21. focus [T]

[+ on / upon ]

to give attention, effort, etc. to one particular subject, situation or person rather than another

A22

22. foster [T]

formal

to encourage sth to develop

A53

23. influence [T]

1. to have an effect on the way that sb behaves or thinks, esp. by giving them an example to follow

2. to have an effect on a particular situation and the way that it develops

A48

24. investigate [I, T]

to try to find out information and facts about a crime, accident, or scientific problem by study or research

A83

25. occur [I]

occurred, occurring

formal

to happen; to exist

A85

26. propose [T]

[~ sth to sb]

[~ that]

[~ doing sth]

[~ to do sth]

1. to formally suggest a plan, time, or way of doing sth

[T] formal

[~ to do sth]

2. to intend to do sth

[I]

[+ to]

3. to ask sb to marry you

[T] formal

[~ that]

4. to suggest an idea, method etc. as an answer to a scientific question

A80

27. suggest [T]

[~ sth to sb]

[~ doing sth]

[~ that sb do sth]

1. to put forward an idea or a plan for other people to think about; syn propose

[~ sb/sth (for sth) ]

[~ sb/sth (as sth)]

2. to tell sb about a suitable person, thing, method, etc. for a particular job or purpose; syn recommend

[~ sth (to sb)]

3. to make sb think that sth is true; syn indicate

4. to state sth indirectly; syn IMPLY

noun

noun-building suffix

verb

verb-building suffix

adjective

adjective-building suffix

1. advocate

защищать, поддерживать

–

2. application

кандидат, соискатель

применять; обращаться с просьбой, заявлением

применимый, подходящий

прикладной

3. awareness

–

сведущий, сознающий

4. environment

–

относящийся к окружающей среде

5. motive

мотиватор

мотивация

мотивировать

мотивирующий

мотивационный

6. research

исследователь

исследовать

–

7. response

способность к реагированию, отзывчивость

ответственность

реагировать

реагирующий, отзывчивый

ответственный

8. stimulus

стимуляция

стимулировать

стимулирующий

9. интерес

concern

заинтересованный

10. вклад

contribute

способствующий

11. определение, установление

детерминант,

определяющий

фактор

детерминизм

determine

обусловливающий

определимый

детерминистичес-кий

12. развитие

develop

относящийся к развитию, развивающийся

развитый

13. акцент, упор, особое значение

emphasize

–

14. влияние

influence

влиятельный

15. исследование

исследователь

investigate

исследователь-ский

16. предложение

propose

–

17. случай, инцидент

occur

–

18. предложение; предположение;

внушение

suggest

поддающийся внушению

намекающий на что-л;