4.12 The evolutionary basis for human behavior: Maximizing inclusive fitness.

According to sociobiological explanations all human behavior is aimed at maximizing inclusive fitness that motivates people to promote the interests of genetically related people. The concept of inclusive fitness for the human species is not limited to offspring, but includes also maximizing the interest of other kin including nephews and nieces (Wilson, 1975). The promotion of the interest of kin is central to evolutionary reproductive success for social species like humans. Sociobiology extends the argument of genetic determinants of behavior to human on a very broad scale. Wilson suggests that most of the branches of human knowledge in social sciences or humanities are reducible to the biology or sociobiology of a species.

4.13 Perspective in the transmission of culture.

It is the obligation of researchers to examine both cultural as well as genetic bases in cultural transmission. The genetic underpinnings of culture are essential components in the development of cultural solutions to environmental problems. However, cultural information is transmitted by social interaction from one generation to the next. The capacity for learning is limited by our genetic inheritance, but the cultural information channels offer the possibility to pass on cultural knowledge to our offspring. Life teaches us what is useful to survival or social success, and that information is conveyed by parents and other cultural guardians. Social learning theory explains many of the differences found in comparative studies as people learn by observation and imitation. It is important to remember that members of society are not passive spectators in cultural transmission. People interact with their cultures for evolutionary benefit and create niches that serve the purpose of reproductive success (Laland, Odling-Smee, & Feldman, 2000). Members of cultural groups participate in creating niches for example some population groups have dominated certain professions like medicine or the sale of jewelry as these were found over time to be successful niches ensuring survival through several generations.

Summary

The central concern of cross-cultural psychology is how people acquire culturally unique traits as well as communalities in behaviors across cultures. All theories of learning apply to the transmission of culture in interactions with parents, siblings, the educational system, and the ecological context. Socialization is the deliberate teaching of cultural values by parents and others whereas enculturation refer to the internalized psychological end product. In other words socialization is the means to the encultural ends. Through the transmission of culture society pass on the skills and values thought important to survival and successful living.

There are both important similarities between cultures, but also distinct differences in childrearing as some cultures emphasize conformity and obedience and other societies promote personal independence. The ecological context, socio-political environment, customs, and psychology of caregivers provide the important niche components defining child development. However, the child is not a passive observer but actively interacts with these developmental forces and in the process affect the construal of the self. Childrearing ideology describes the dominant parental beliefs in society about the best way to raise children, and how to nurture and express warmth and affection. These and other values are inculcated in all members of a culture in the process of development. Affluent societies have more resources and time to develop unique assets of the child, whereas parents in poor societies are just struggling to stay afloat and survive.

Childrearing styles identified as authoritative and authoritarian have been found to have significant outcomes. Authoritative parents provide child care that is firm, but also reasonable and fair. The context of authoritative child rearing includes the consistent expression of warmth and affection. Authoritarian parents on the other hand demand obedience and practice strict control. Research has demonstrated the superiority of the authoritative style producing more positive emotions in the child more self-confidence, with long-lasting consequences.

The climate of home life is the major context in the transmission of cultural values. Differences have been observed between collectivistic and individualistic societies in the interaction of parents with the educational system. Sleeping with the mother is the earliest form of security in the home and also varies by culture. In the U.S. parents generally try to create early independence in all aspects of childrearing, and as a substitute for sleeping with the mother the child is provided with security blankets and sleep in separate quarters at the earliest moment possible. However, parents in other societies believe that keeping the child physically close provide essential security for later development. Socio-economic factors may also play a role also in sleeping arrangements. Bonding has more utility in societies struggling to survive and that context may favor intimate sleeping patterns. Further, poverty may prevent the creation of additional space for separate sleeping arrangements.

The means of creating attachment in childhood varies by culture. The use of physical touch and verbal stimulation are dependent on cultural values and beliefs. Attachment is considered an important psychological achievement essential for later cultural learning. Relationships to siblings represent an early cultural influence. In fact the significant events of family and cultural life are sifted through the eyes of siblings, and cultural interdependence is taught by these relationships. How to act properly in social interaction and in gender relationships is primarily mediated by sibling relationships.

The extended family is also a source of cultural knowledge. Peers and the extended family reinforce the important cultural values in society. Material and emotional interdependence is particularly important in pre-industrial societies and in those cultures where people struggle to survive. By contrast interdependence is limited to the immediate family in Western countries and Western societies foster the separated and independent self. Although the research results are ambiguous it is thought that the self is construed differentially in collectivistic and individualistic cultures. Extended families are more involved in child rearing in collectivistic cultures. Ethnic groups in multi-cultural societies may continue to transmit the cultural expectation on gender related behavior and loyalty unique to their own group.

Culture is mediated by the country’s educational system. Schools are major socializing agents in most societies in the world and serve to inculcate cultural values. In individualistic societies the educational system serves to prepare the student for a competitive future through the emphasis on grading, ranking, and competitive sports. The influence of peers on cultural learning increases in the school years. The socio-economic climate also affects development. In societies struggling for survival children learn motor skills at an earlier age compared to children from affluent communities. These motor skills are more salient to aid survival in harsh environments. Birth death rates vary by culture. Where the rates are high mothers must concentrate all their efforts on the survival of their infants and few parental resources are available to promote other assets of the child or provide enriching learning experiences. Eventually social identity grows out of the home climate and children learn early to identify with ingroups and reference groups. Children from individualistic societies also learn early the utility of competiveness for success and achievement.

Comparative studies in child rearing show that attachment experiences vary by culture as parental warmth and affection are not expressed in the same way in all cultures. In some cultures parents use physical touch to express loving feelings whereas in other cultures parents utilize their voices and intonation to express warmth. However, in all cultures parents have a desire for their children to learn emotional and social skills. Parents everywhere also use assertive behavior when disciplining their children for infractions. Parental ideology or ethnotheories play important but varying roles in different societies. These theories define play time interactions and the actual time spent with their children. Adherence to cultural values is a parental concern in all societies; however mothers in collectivistic cultures are more concerned when the child displays a lack of cooperation, whereas American mothers are more worried about their children’s disruptive behavior.

In some cultural or social groups parents have no childrearing ideology believing that their children can manage development without interference. However, in most cultures parents believe they must play an active role in raising their children. In collectivistic societies parents demand strict obedience and provide sanctions for behavior that does not meet expectations. Parental authoritarianism is related to a lack of cultural and socio-economic stability. The emphasis on competition leads Western parents to have expectations for the early development of skills.

The origin of human cognition is human interaction. In fact human “nature” does not exist in isolation from culture. Culture is the mediating variable between biological and environmental factors. Individual development is determined by the interaction of biology, phylogenetic development, and cultural variables. Culture provides the framework for the social interactions and mediates the internalization of cultural values. Culture also plays a role in lifespan development since it provides support services needed in the later stages of aging without which a person would not survive.

Stage theories in cognition, moral development and psychosocial development describe individual change in processes thought universal. Piaget’s theory examines the evolution of cognition in four stages. Evidence from the comparative literature supports the universality of the early cognitive stage sequences. However, there is little evidence for the universality of “formal operations” as this type of abstract thinking probably requires a Western education. The ages at which children master the early stages also appear to vary by culture. Moral development is evaluated in Kohlberg’s theory in 6 stages. Some evidence for the universality of the first two stages is supported by comparative research. However, the higher stages appear to reflect Western moral traditions. The stability of moral stages is questioned since circumstances and powerful situations may cancel any stage of moral development. Kohlberg has also been criticized for gender bias since males and females view relationships differentially. Other criticisms focus on the influence of individualistic cultures on the higher stages of moral development. Erickson believed that all human beings pass through 8 psychosocial stages starting at birth and ending with death. At each stage a crisis occurs that if solved in a positive way leads to stronger egos and better adaptability. The main criticism of psychosocial development theory is that it reflects the normative culture of the West. Psychosocial development takes a different road in societies struggling for survival, and social identity is prescribed in some societies and not the outcome of crisis. The aforementioned discussion has emphasized cultural transmission from the perspective of the socio-cultural context. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the biological underpinnings of cultural behavior. The important study of survival and cultural adaptation is based on evolutionary principles.

Chapter 5