Verbals (Revision)

7. Choose the most suitable form.

1. Most of the scientists (invited / inviting) to the conference were (leading / led) specialists in various branches of economics.

2. Experiment is a test (carried out / being carried out) to gain new knowledge.

3. The number of electronic computers (used / having been used) in any (given / giving) field of human activity is an indi­cation of the degree of its modernity.

4. If (informed / informing) of new repressions, the workers will go on strike.

5. When (giving / given) advice to others, think whether you would follow it yourself.

6. Reporters can cause suffering to individuals (by publishing / by being published) details about their private lives.

7. I'm absolutely sure I locked the door. I clearly remember (locking / to lock) it.

8. I remembered (locking / to lock) the door when I left but I forgot to shut the windows.

9. In Britain she had a lot of problems as she wasn't used to (drive / driving) on the left.

10. The streets are unsafe at night. A lot of people are afraid (to go / going) out.

11. I don't usually carry my passport with me. I'm afraid of (losing / to lose) it.

12. (To be / Being) unemployed, he has never got much money, but it is always (embarrassing / embarrassed) for him (to ask / asking) people for help.

13. She avoided (expressing / to express) her opinion in public.

14. Would you mind (answering / to answer) a few questions?

15. He finished the letter with the words "I'm looking forward to (seeing / see) you in Minsk".

16. The workers complained about (being regularly insulted / having insulted) by the employers.

17. I'm sorry (to bother / bothering) you, but I need to talk to you.

18. I'm sorry (for being / to be) late. I was delayed by the traf­fic.

19. The article (typing / being typed) now will be published to­morrow.

20. The students have just passed the last exam and one of them suggested (going / to go) to the pub in the evening.

21. I'm sorry (hearing / to hear) that you've lost your job.

22. She is a very interesting person. I always enjoy (talking / to talk) to her.

23. If you cross the street without looking you risk (being / hav­ing been) knocked down.

24. He is trying to sell his car but nobody is interested (in buy­ing / to buy) it.

25. She lives only a short way from here, so it's not worth (tak­ing / to take) a taxi to get to her house.

2. Define the constructions with the Verbals. Translate the sen­tences into Russian.

\. Science seems to be playing a major part on politics now and it is desirable for people to understand it.

2. For the experiment to be successful he had to do much work before carrying it out.

3. We do not expect the government to cut taxes though it was promised to the people not long ago.

4. This discovery is considered to be the result of a long and thorough investigation.

5. The application of science and technology in all fields is certain to affect the structure of society as a whole.

6. Occasionally, we all have days, in which nothing seems to go right.

7. Steve's coming so late surprised everybody for he was known to be a very punctual person.

8. The manager's refusing to sign this contract was unex­pected result of our talks with one of the foreign companies working in this country.

9.1 heard them discussing the agenda of the conference and asked if they would mind my joining their discussion.

10. When he had all his taxes paid, the amount left in the bank was hardly worth mentioning.

11. The standard of living having improved, the families could afford spending more money on foodstuffs.

12. Both scientists and scholars carry out research, the dif­ference between the two is that the former are engaged in exact and natural sciences, while the latter work in the field of the humanities.

3. Paraphrase the following sentences using the verbals and constructions with them.

1. She was sorry that she had missed the beginning of the lecture.

2. The problems that will be discussed are vital for our re­search.

3. The two sides expect that negotiations will be long and difficult.

4. Most of the scientists believe that rapid expansion of in­dustrialization leads to an exhaustion of natural resources.

5. People are sure that science will influence the solution of most important economic and political problems.

6. We waited when the newspapers would publish the in­formation about our new discovery.

7. The teacher insisted that we should take part in the con­ference.

8. As he didn't know the language and had-no friends in the town he found it hard to get work.

9. As the crisis in the country had passed, people could think about the future again.

10. The problems of pollution have already been discussed at a large number of conferences and some of them have been sponsored by the UN.

11. I smelt that something was burning and suddenly saw that smoke was rising over the roof of the house.

12. O. Wild welcomed socialism and considered that it would be a better organized society.

4. Translate the sentences into English, using Verbals and Con­structions with them.

1. Во второй главе книги автор продолжает описывать экономическое положение в стране.

2. Проанализировав экономику страны, он охарактери­зовал политическую ситуацию.

3. Не ожидая ответа, он повернулся и вышел из комна­ты не сказав ни слова.

4. Чтобы поступить в аспирантуру, нужно иметь выс­шее образование.

5. Говорят, он прекрасный учёный, сделавший ряд от­крытий в области математики.

6. Известно, что ряд преступлений было совершено в этом городе в последнее время, и полиции будет трудно расследовать их.

7. Он думал, что управляющий предложит ему новую работу, и не смог не спросить его об этом.

8. Кажется, экскурсия по городу начнётся с осмотра достопримечательностей лондонского Тауэра.

9. Знать страну - значит знать историю народа этой страны, его литературу и искусство.

10. Я никогда не забуду, как сдавал вступительные эк­замены в университет.

11. Заказав билеты в театр, я пошёл за покупками.

12. Она стояла глядя в окно и ждала, когда сын вернётся домой.

The Preposition

Prepositions show relationships in time and space and rela­tionships between ideas (logical relationships). Many words that can be used as prepositions can also be used as adverbs, but not all of them can. A preposition in a prepositional phrase is al­ways followed by a noun, a pronoun, or another word that can replace a noun, such as an -ing form (Gerund). Always use an object form of a personal pronoun after a preposition.

Prepositions: place

at a point/place	/ met her at the bus stop. She lives at 43
	Duke Road. He's at work (i.e. not at
	home). They're at a party tonight.
on a surface	The book is on the desk. We sat on the
	floor.
in an area or	Malawi is a country in Africa. She lives,
space	in Milan. He's in the kitchen. The key's
	in my pocket. Put it in the box.
along, round	We drove along the river, round the
past, through	lake, past the old castle, and through
	the village.
between, near	Our house is between t\vo shops and it
across	is near a bus stop; you just go across tl,e
	road and walk along.

Opposites

Some prepositions form pairs of opposites. up / down into / out of

over / above in front of / behind

NOTE: Over/above are often synonymous, so are un­der/below, but over and under sometimes suggest movement. When we flew over Paris we couldn't see much because we were above the clouds. Below us was the river which ran under the bridge.

Prepositions: time

at on	a time: at 9 o'clock an age: at fifteen/the age of fifteen a day or a on Monday, on 25th September date: on Saturday afternoon, on the morning of 4th June noun/gerund: On departure / departing, she ... = When she departed, she...
in	a period of time: - some time during that period: in the morning, in February, in 1994; - at the end of a stated period: I'll be ready in five minutes. (five minutes from now); - the length of time that something takes: / read the book in two and a half hours.
by	a time, date, period, not later than that time: You must be here by 7 о 'clock.
before	a time, date, period, event: / never go to bed before midnight.
after	a time, date, period, event: I'll phone you after lunch.
since	a point in time, from that time now or until a point in the past:
	We've been here since Tuesday. It was the end of the summer. They had been there since June.
for	a period of time: They've been together for three
	years.
during	a named period or an event: We always work hard during the summer. Fighting broke out between rival fans during the match.
until / till	a point in time, the point in time at which the action finished:
	We slept until 1 till 8.00. We didn 't wake up until / till 8.00.

from a time to / until/till a time:

We slept from 11.30 to I until I till 8.00.

NOTES:

• We use at with festivals and religious celebrations: at Easter.

• We say at night. But we can also say in the night meaning during.

• We often use last I this I next with time words: We didn't go on holiday last summer.

I'm going home this weekend. I'll see you next Monday.

• During versus for.

We rented a cottage for the summer.

He became ill during the summer.

We spend all our time outside during the summer.

• During versus in:

They can both be used to refer to something that happens throughout a time period, from its beginning to its end, and so it is often possible to use either during or in: It's very cold here during I in the winter.

But

- We use in and not during when we want the time reference to sound more specific. So, for example, if we are contrasting one period of time with another, we use in:

I last saw you in May, not July.

- We use during when we want to stress the idea of duration.

She felt miserable during the whole of that summer.

- When the time reference is an activity rather than a time pe­riod, we use during:

She didn't speak once during the meal.

Prepositions: position and movement

(away) from / at /to	a place	/'// meet you at the station. We walked from the station to the cinema.
out of / in / in (to)	a place	I'll wait for you in the car. Could you get in(to) the car? Can I get out of the car here, please ?
off / on / on (to)	a surface or line	We need some pictures on the wall. Shall we take that picture off the wall?
		Do you think we should put this on the wall?

NOTES: We usually use on rather than onto. We use onto when we want to emphasize the movement from one place onto another:

/ drove onto the motorway. (I drove off another road and

onto the motorway.)

/ drove on the motorway. (That's where I drove. / That's

how I got there.) • arrive at I in a place get to I into a place get in (without place)

in as an adverb: When does the train get inl on a train, bus, plane in a car

Preposition + noun

by Elton John	A book by Stephen King, a film by Steven Spielberg, a song by Elton John.
for a walk	You can go for a walk, for a drive, for a run, for a swim.
in the morning (but at night)	You can go in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening.
by car (but on foot)	You can travel by car, by plane, by bus, by coach, by train, by taxi.
on the radio (but in the newspaper)	I heard it on the radio; I saw it on TV; I spoke to her on the phone (but I read it in the newspaper, in a magazine).
in the dark suit	The man in the dark suit (= wearing the dark suit); the woman in the red dress.
by mistake, by myself	I took his pen by mistake. (= I thought it was my pen.)
	I did all the work by myself. (- on my own; without help from others.)
by hand	The shoes are made by hand. (= not by machine.)
on strike	The workers are on strike. (= they refuse to work because of a problem over pav, hours, etc.)
by chance	I met them by chance. (= it wasn't planned - it was luck.)
on holiday	The children are on holiday. (= they are having a holiday.)
by accident	He broke the plate by accident. (= he did not want to do it - it was an error /mistake.)
on purpose	He broke the plate on purpose. (= he
	wanted to do it and intended to do it)
out of work	There are two million out of work. (=
	without a job.)
at least	There were at least fifty people at the
	party. (= a minimum of 50.)
on time /	Lessons begin at 8.30 and I always arrive
in time	on time. (= at 8.30) Lessons begin at 8.30
	and I always get there. (= before 8.30; I'm
	not late.)
in the end /	In the end we went home. (= finally, after
at the end	a long period.) At the end of the book they
	get married.
in business /	The two men are in business. (= they are
on business	businessmen.)
	The two men are in Germany on business.
	(= they are there for work and not for a
	holiday.)
in a moment /	I'll see you in a moment. (= very soon)
at the moment	I can't speak to you at the moment. (=
	right now.)

Prepositions used with adjectives and participles

absorbed in according to accustomed to afraid of

anxious for / about ashamed of aware of bad at /for capable of confident of due to /for

involved in keen on liable for / to nervous of owing to pleased with prepared / or proud of ready for responsible for/to scared of

exposed to fit for fond of

frightened of/at good at /for interested in

sorry for / about successful in suspicious of terrified of tired of used to

He was absorbed in his book. She is afraid/frightened/scared of the dark. According to Tom it's 2.30. (Tom says it's 2.30.) He is bad/good at chess, (a bad / good player.) Running is bad/good for you. (unhealthy / healthy.) They are very keen on golf.

Drivers exceeding the speed limit are liable to a fine. The management is not responsible for articles left in custom­ers ' cars.

I'm sorry for your husband. (I pity him.) I'm sorry for forgetting the tickets. I'm sorry about the tickets.

Prepositions and verbs

accuse sb of

apologize (to sb)for

apply to sb /for sth

ask for / about

attend to

beg for

believe in

beware of

blame sbfor

charge sb with (an offence)

compare sth with

comply with

conform to

consist of

deal in

insist on

live on (food/money)

long for

object to

occur to

persist in

prefer sb / sth to sb / sth

prepare for

punish sb for

quarrel with sb about

refer to

rely on

remind sb of

resort to

succeed in

depend on dream of fight with sb for fine sb for hope for

suspect sb of think of / about wait for

warn sb of / about wish for

Do you believe in ghosts ?

They were charged with receiving stolen goods.

You haven't complied with the regulations.

For a week she lived on bananas and milk.

It never occurred to me to insure the house.

They persisted in defying the law.

When arguments/ailed he resorted to threats.

Prepositions / adverbs

Many words can be used as either prepositions or adverbs:

He got off the bus at the corner, (preposition)

He got off at the corner, (adverb)

The most important of these are above, about, across, along,

before, behind, below, besides, by, down, in, near, off, on,

over, past, round, since, through, under, up:

They were here before six. (preposition)

He has done this sort of work before, (adverb)

Peter is behind us. (preposition)

He's a long way behind, (adverb)

She climbed over the wall, (preposition)

You 'II have to climb over too. (adverb)

When the meeting was over the delegates went home, (ad­verb; here over = finished)

The shop is just round the corner, (preposition)

Come round (to my house) any evening, (adverb)

He ran up the stairs, (preposition)

He went up in the lift, (adverb)

Many of these words are used to form phrasal verbs:

The plane took off. (left the ground)

He came round, (recovered consciousness)

Practice

1. Choose the correct words in the conversations.

A JAY: Oh, look. Here's a photo taken in my class­room at primary school. Can you recognise me in / on it?

ANNA: No, I don't think so. Unless that's you right in/ at the back.

JAY: No, that's not me. I'm the one standing in / at the corner.

ANNA: In trouble as usual!

В PIA: I don't understand this.

LILY: What?

PIA: Well, I want to check something with the col­lege, but it says in / on this letter that I must give a reference number when I phone, and I can't find it.

LILY: It's in that little booklet, in /on the first page.

PIA: Oops! So it is. Thanks.

С LEN: Where's your sister?

SUE: She's at / in wedding.

LEN: Oh? Where?

SUE: At/In Paris.

LEN: Who's getting married?

SUE: She is.

LEN: Oh.

D GARY: What was that? NICK: What?

GARY: I'm sure I saw a face at/in the window. NICK: Don't be silly. It's the television, reflected оги/ in the glass.

E MEL: Did you see Yves in / at the dance?

JAN: No, of course not. He went back to / in France last week.

MEL: But I'm sure I saw him in / on the bus yester­day. In fact, he waved to me when we arrived to/at the bus station.

JAN: How strange. We'll have to investigate what he's up to!

2. Choose the correct prepositions.

Trouble at Norton Mining

The entire workforce of Norton Mining has gone on / in strike following a serious accident at the mine in Coolooma. The cause for / of the accident is unclear, but the union is blam­ing management attitudes on / to safety regulations. A spokes­person said, "Damage of/ to equipment was frequently ignored and union demands for / of safer working practices were re­jected. The managers' relationship with / to the union was very poor, so although we pointed out that there'd been a rise of/ in the number of minor accidents over the past year, they said there was no need for / of a change in working practices".

John Norton, the chairman of Norton Mining, is away on / m a business trip. His secretary said she had spoken to him by / on the phone. The news of the accident had come like / as a great shock to him, she added. She was unable to say when he would be back.

It is understood that the police would like to speak to Mr Norton in connection with / to a number of his financial deal­ings.

3. Complete the gaps with a preposition (or adverb) of position or movement.

Two friends, Polly and Maria, are talking. P: I didn't see you at the club last night. Where were you? Did you stay ... home?

M: Yes, I thought it was time to stay ... for a change and, besides, I didn't feel very well. I just lay ... bath reading for ages. I decided I wasn't going to get ... the bath until I'd finished the book. But then Rosie turned up ... the doorstep so I had to get ... to see her.

P: So are you feeling well enough to come out later on?

M: I think so.

P: Well, I'm going round ... Helen's at 5.00 and we're go­ing to take the train ... Highbury ... Richmond. So we should get ... Richmond by 6.00. Then we can walk ... the station ... that nice cafe ... the riverbank. And if we see Charles there, he might invite us ... his boat.

M: Oh, that would be nice.

P: Did he tell you about Kate pushing him ... last week?

M: No. So, he fell ... the boat, did he?

P: Yes, and straight... the river. He was soaked, and pretty cold too.

4. Complete the gaps with a suitable preposition or adverb of time or place.

It was 8 o'clock on cold morning ... January. She was still asleep. She usually stayed ... bed ... about 9 o'clock... the win­ter. Suddenly she was woken up by a knocking at the door. She got ... bed and went ... the door. There was a man ... the door­step. She thought she recognized him. "Hello, Edna", he said. "It's Tom. Can I come ...?" And then she knew who it was but she didn't quite believe it. She hadn't seen him ... thirty years, not ... the summer of 1940 when she'd said goodbye to him the night ... his final departure. That was when he went off ... war. It was two years ... that when she received the letter... the War Office which said that Tom had been missing ... some time and was now presumed dead. She kept on hoping that they were wrong right up ... the end of the war. But then she gave up. ... then, she'd continued to think of Tom every day. ... his birth­day, she always stayed ... home all day because she couldn't bear to meet anybody. She'd met Tom ... the age of sixteen and they'd had a wonderful time together ... the start of the war. She was nineteen when war broke out and they'd been together ... three years. They were going to get married ... the war.

She looked at his face. It was still the same face but with quite a few lines ... it and there was a bit less hair ... his head. He put his hand ... his pocket and took out a small photograph. It was one she 'd sent him just... his disappearance. It was a picture of her ... a teenager ... the war. She held it... her hand and remembered back to those times. She felt rather hot and dizzy and thought that she might fall... the floor at any moment. She asked him to come ... the living-room and they sat down together to tell their stories.

5. Finish these questions with the correct preposition, then write a short answer for each one.

\. What exactly is she worried ...?

2. Who is she waiting ...?

3. What subjects is she good ...?

4. What job is she applying ...?

5. What programme is she listening ...?

6. What did she complain ...?

7. What did she apologise ...?

8. Who does this car belong ...?

9. I know she was angry but who was she shouting ...?

10. What kind of films is she interested ...?

11. What will the decision depend ...?

12. What is she afraid ...?

6. Complete these sentences in a way that is logical and gram­matically correct.

1. My steak was overcooked, so I complained.......

2. When I was a child I sometimes wore clothes that belonged

3. I want to help poor people, so I have decided to apply.......

4. I work quire hard but I'm not very good.......

5. In the summer a lot of people suffer.......

6. I've always been interested.......

7. I'm very keen.......

8. A lot of people are afraid.......

9. People in my country are very different.......

10. When I went to.......I was very surprised.......

7. Fill the gaps to complete the phrasal verb in each sentence.

1. We went round the school and ... up all the rubbish.

2. I don't think they ever ... out how the man escaped.

3. This milk smells horrible; I think it has ... off.

4. Do you think they'll ... through the exam next week?

5. They had a bad relationship at first, but she ... on very well with him now.

6. The price has ... up three times this year.

7'. I agreed to ... after my sister's cat when she goes to France.

8. We can ... on until the teacher tells us to stop.

9. Why didn't your alarm clock ... off this morning?

10. I'm afraid this photocopier has ... out of paper, but you can use the other one in my office.

8. Complete these sentences with the correct preposition.

1. I saw it...TV.

2. They came ... car.

3. They are all... strike.

4. He is here ... busi­ness.

5. I did it... my own.

6. It was written ... Goethe.

7. We went... a walk.

8. I read it... a maga­zine.

9. He's ... holiday this week.

10. She took it... mis­take.

11. I went... the afternoon.

12. He came ... foot.

13. The clothes are made ... hand.

14. She broke it... accident.

15. He did it... purpose.

16. I'll see you ... a moment.

17. I'm very busy ... the mo­ment.

18. It's very quiet... night.

19. We met... chance.

20. She's ... least 25 years old.

9. Replace the underlined words with a suitable prepositional phrase. Look at the example first.

Model: The meeting was planned for 11 a.m. and we got here at 11 a.m. on time.

1.1 wrote the reports without any help from anyone else.

2. Did you get to the cinema before the film started?

3. Thousands of people are without jobs in my town.

4. She's making a phone call.

5. I saw the advertisement when I was watching TV last night.

6. He opened her letter because he thought it was addressed to him.

7. It was a very long journey but finally we got there.

8. He gets killed in the last scene of the film.

9. I'm afraid I'm very busy right now.

10.1 saw her yesterday but I didn't plan to see her.

10. Complete the sentences with during, by, until, at, on or in.

If no word is needed, leave a space (—).

1. We usually finish work early on Fridays.

2. ... the time you get this letter, I shall be in Miami.

3. She wrote this article ... her holiday.

4. He won't hand over the parcel ... we pay him.

5. The children aren't here ... the moment, but they'll be back ... a few minutes.

6. Can you come to tea with us ... next Sunday?

7. I want to be at the stadium early so that we're ... time to get good seats.

8. Please don't touch anything ... the police arrive.

9. I should be free by 3 p.m. If the meeting doesn't end ... time, I shall have to make my apologies and leave.

10. She was reluctant to help us at first, but ... the end she agreed to do what she could.

11. I'm not sure whether it'll be Thursday or Friday, but I'll definitely be back ... the weekend.

12. Will you finish work ... time to do the shopping?

13. We always used to have a party ... the end of term.

14. I'd like to hold our next meeting ... 23rd March. Will that suit you?

//. Write the correct preposition in each gap.

The CND

The Campaign ... Nuclear Disarmament (CND) is celebrat­ing thirty years of calling ... the removal ... Britain's nuclear weapons.

CND believes ... unilateral disarmament. The chairman of the organization, Bruce Kent, says "Ideas ... disarmament have changed ... the years. Russian and American leaders now agree that an equal number of weapons ... both sides is not necessary ... security, and that major cuts ... nuclear arms should be made. These ideas stemmed ... groups like CND, who have argued ... reductions for years". CND was launched in London in 1958 ... a meeting ... five thousand enthusiasts.

... that time, Britain had just begun to test its own H-bomb, and the policy ... having its own nuclear weapons to stop other countries ... attacking had been made official.

By 1961, there were nearly one thousand CND groups in Britain protesting ... increased expenditure ... nuclear arms.

But since then, there has been a decline ... membership. Bruce Kent explains, "We failed ... our attempt to make people see the connection ... declining social services and the fact that the government is spending twelve billion pounds ... Trident missiles".

12. Write the correct preposition in each gap. Television and Reading

I pride myself ... the fact that I read two or three books a week.... this rate I'll be familiar... local library soon.

I blame TV. ... every book in our the way people don't seem to read as much as they used to. ... my way of thinking TV is responsible ... many ills in our society.

I wonder... the amount of TV watched by my sister's chil­dren. I have warned her ... the dangers of this but ... vain. She refuses to get involved ... a discussion ... the subject.

..." one time I used to watch a fair amount of TV but I re­stricted myself ... particular programmes such as documentaries and an occasional good film. However I soon grew tired ... even this. I was indifferent ... many of the topics in the docu­mentaries and there is always something missing ... films or TV plays which are based ... the stories in books. However good the film, it is no substitute ... the original story. At last 1 think I am beginning to convince my sister ... the bad effect of TV ... her children. She has agreed ... my suggestion of selec­tive viewing and at the beginning of each week her family agrees ... which programmes they want to watch and the TV is only turned on at those times. It's taken a long time to get her to agree ... me but I'm sure the school work of my nephews and niece will benefit as a result.

13. Write the correct preposition in each gap.

To Join or not to Join?

At no point in my life have I been keen ... the idea of join­ing any kind of club or group. I rebelled ... it ... a very early age, when my mother tried to force me ... becoming a member of the Girl Guides. I went once, or at least, I got as far as look­ing in the door of the church hall, but I couldn't cope ... the sight of all those confident-looking girls in blue, competing so heartily ... each other ... those games and activities, so I ran home ... tears. My mother despaired ... me, but persisted ... her attempts to get me to join something. She was keen ... me to go to ballet classes. I actually got in through the door this time, and

the whole this was more successful than the guides. I emerged ... my first lesson, eyes shining with the dream ... be­ing a prima ballerina. Unfortunately I had not reckoned ... being totally lacking ... talent, so my enthusiasm ballet lasted a little less than a year .... Later in life I puzzled over my friends' de-

sire to Join tennis clubs, bridge clubs. Young Wives Clubs. Old Wives Clubs, pottery classes and the like. They me to go with them, but pleaded ... I couldn't bear to. Such clubs didn't inter­est me ... the slightest. Why am I so allergic ... groups? I don't suffer ... shyness. I can't really understand it. Perhaps the key ... my problem lies in the fact that I'm an only child. I just don't know.

The Conjunction

1. The conjunction is a part of speech which denotes connec­tions between objects and phenomena. It connects parts of the sentence, clauses, and sentences.

My favourite flowers are roses and tulips which I grow in my garden.

It has stopped raining, but it's still cold and windy.. Let's take a taxi or we'll miss the train.

2. According to their morphological structure conjunctions are divided into the following groups:

a) simple conjunctions: and, but, or, till, when, where, etc.

b) derivative conjunction: until, unless, etc.

c) compound conjunctions: however, wherever, etc.

d) composite conjunctions: as well as, as long as, in case, for the reason that, etc.

Some conjunctions are used in pairs (correlatively): both...and, either...or, neither...nor, whether...or, etc.

3. As to their function conjunctions fall under two classes:

a) co-ordinating conjunctions

b) subordinating conjunctions

Co-ordinating conjunctions connect words, and clauses that are independent of each other:

and -и, а	but - но
as well as - так же как (и)	or - или, иначе
both . . . and и ... и, как ... так и		either ... or или ... или
not only . . . but also не только ..., но и		neither . . . nor ли ... ни

Subordinating conjunctions connect a subordinate clause with the principle clause.

Conjunctions: that - что, if, whether- ли introduce subor­dinate subject clauses, predicative clauses, and object clauses.

That he was in trouble was clear from the very beginning.

Whether I help you or not depends on your behaviour, my

boy.

Ask him whether (if) he will help us tomorrow.

The problem is that he needs money to start his business.

Conjunctions used for introducing adverbial clauses:

1) of place: where — где wherever - где бы не

2) of time:

after - после того как

as -в то время как, когда, по мере того как

as long as - пока, до тех пор пока

as soon as - как только

since - с тех пор как

until (till) - до тех пор пока ... (не)

before - прежде чем

whilst = while - в то время как, пока

3) of reason or cause:

as — так как

because — потому что, так как

for - ибо, так как

seeing (that) - поскольку, принимая во внимание

since — так как, поскольку

4) of condition:

if- если

on condition (that) - при условии если

provided /providing (that) - при условии если

supposing (that) - если

unless - если ... не,

допустим (что),

предположим (что)

5) of purpose:

in order that, so that, that - для того чтобы lest - чтобы ...не

6) of comparison or manner:

as - как

as if(as though) - как будто, как если бы

so ... that - так (такой) что

such ... that- такой ... что

as... as - так (такой) же ... как

(not) so ... as — (не) так (такой) ... как

than - чем

7) of concession and result: though (although) - хотя in spite of- несмотря на so that - так что

NOTE: It should be pointed out that a number of conjunctions are homonymous with prepositions, adverbs, and pronouns.

/ haven't heard from him since we left school.

Everything has changed since that time.

The child had his last meal three hours ago and hasn 't had anything to eat since.

Practice

1. Read the following texts and analyze all the conjunctions used in them. Discuss the contents of the texts.

Does Anyone Care?

In 1985 a French television company sent its reporters to the Paris Metro. They took cameras to see what passengers would do if they saw someone attacked on the platform or trains. The incidents looked real but they were all done with the help of actors. However, very few people tried to help, and most pas­sengers pretended not to notice. In one incident a foreigner was attacked by three men. The attack was on a train which was quite full, and although one man tried to get the other passen­gers to help, they all refused.

This is not only a French problem. A British newspaper re­ported in 1981 that a professor of Social Psychology in New York had sent his students out to rob their own cars. The stu­dents didn't try to hide what they were doing. About 8000 peo­ple watched 250 car thefts, and only twelve people tried to stop the student robbers. In a typical incident, one man stopped, looked, and then put his hands over his eyes and shouted, "I didn't see that!" About forty people offered to help the thieves, and two people actually sat down next to the car and waited to buy a camera and television-set a student was taking from the back seat of his own car.

The Professor thought that some people might be afraid to stop and help in case the thieves attacked them. So he got a po­liceman to stand within 15 metres of a robbery. Everyone walked past, except for two people who told the thieves that a policeman wasn't far away.

It seems that such behavior is not unusual, but the question is why? Is it a problem of big cities, or would the same thing happen anywhere? Was the problem with the experiments? To discuss these questions we have in the studio Professor Wilson who is an expert in the subject ...

The Japanese Way of Bathing

For the Japanese, bathing is one of the pleasures of life. Every Japanese takes one if not two baths a day. At holiday time they'll look for an open-air hot spring pool to relax in and for the Japanese the bath can become a social occasion.

The traditional Japanese bath also saves on water. No Japa­nese ever gets into a bath until he has washed himself thor­oughly all over. He sits on a small stool in front of the taps and a bowl. He then soaps himself all over and washes his whole body. He then washes all the soap off with the help of bowls of water from the tap. Only then does he get in the bath. For the Japanese the western habit of taking a bath which involves washing in the bath water is vulgar and dirty. This even applies to the open-air hot springs in the country. So if you decide to join the Japanese in their favourite holiday pastime, make sure you remember to get yourself clean before you get in.

The Particle

1. The particle is a part of speech, which gives moral or emo­tional emphasis to other words or a phrase, or a clause in the sentence. Particles have no independent function in the sen­tence.

2. According to their meaning they may be divided into the fol­lowing groups:

a) limiting particles: only, but, alone, merely, solely, barely, etc.

Sorry, I only wanted to use your telephone. Her last call alone would have made me give up everything and go to her.

b) intensifying particles: just, even, simply, quite, still, yet, only, etc.

I just want to live and work here.

They didn 't even know where he lived.

Yet, you could have helped me if you only wanted.

c) connecting particles: too, also.

I didn't say a word. Mother, too, was silent. Mr Fox signed all the letters and also made some calls be­fore leaving.

d) Negative particles: not, no.

Are you going to tell him the truth? - Not I. Nothing, not a word was told to me about it. The truth was we had no information about the decision of the committee.

NOTE: Almost all particles are homonymous with other parts of the speech, chiefly with adverbs, but also with conjunctions, pronouns and adjectives. The particles else, solely, merely have no homonyms.

This is just the book I want, (particle)

He's just written a new novel, (adverb)

f have only one letter to answer, (particle)

This is the only way out. (adjective)

I can help you, too. (particle)

Your problem is that your are too lazy, (adverb)

I merely want you to listen to me. Just don't interrupt me please.

Practice

1. Read the following texts and analyze all the particles used in them. Discuss the contents of the texts using as many particles as possible to give emotional emphasis to your story.

The Hold-up

I have four small children, three girls and one boy. I don't go out very much because it's hard for me to find someone to look after them. When I do go out, I have to find a baby sitter. It's not easy for me to find a baby sitter because we have just moved here. Since we're new in town, I don't know very many people yet.

Well, one Friday morning I looked in my purse and found that I had only two pounds left. I still had to do that week's shopping. There was nothing else I could do; I merely had to go to the bank. Yet, I hoped that Rachel, my next-door neighbour, could come and baby-sit for me, but she wasn't at home. So after the children were all dressed, we went off to the bank.

After we were all in the car, I tried to relax a little as I drove to the bank. The children were very noisy from the start. They even were shouting and crying, and picking on each other. By the time we arrived at the bank, I was very angry too.

The bank was very crowded. I don't think since it was the end of the month, it was payday for most people.

Anyway, the children were still playing up, and I was still pretty angry with them. I turned around to try to keep them quiet and shouted, "Stand against the wall and don't say a word!" Everyone in the bank stopped talking. They thought it was a hold-up!

Too Good to be True

The man was always very polite. He always took off his hat and said, "Good afternoon" to the customs officer. The customs officer always asked him to open his bag, but the customs offi­cer couldn't find any whisky or perfume, or cigarettes or any­thing. When the customs officer had looked through the man's bag and couldn't find anything, the man always took off his hat and said, "Thank you. Good-bye!" He was very polite. Yet, the customs officer was sure the man was a smuggler.

After a month the customs officer was so unhappy that he left his job. The next day he watched the smuggler come up to the new customs officer.

"Good afternoon!" said the smuggler and took off his hat politely. "Good afternoon!" said the new customs officer. "Would you open your bag, please". So the man opened his bag again, but the new customs officer couldn't find anything either. "Thank you. Good-bye!" said the man and took off his hat po­litely.

Outside the customs the old customs officer, who had left his job, stopped him and said, "I'm not a customs officer any­more. I left my job. Would you please tell me what you're smuggling? I know you're smuggling something". The old cus­toms officer was almost crazy because he didn't know what it was.

"It's true", said the man. "I am smuggling something. I'm smuggling hats", and he took off his hat politely and said, "Good-bye!"

The Interjection

1. The interjection is a part of speech witch expresses surprise, anger, pleasure or some other emotions or feelings: oh, ah, ha, ho, hey, hum, alas, bravo, hello, etc.

2. Interjections usually have no grammatical connection with the sentences in which they are used. Hence, they are classed among the "independent elements" of a sentence or are treated as exclamatory phrases.

O!Oh-Ox! O!

Ah!-Ax! A!

Eh!-А! Как!

Well!-Ну! Дану! Вот тебе раз!

Well, well! - Ну, ну! Полноте!

Cheerio! - За ваше здоровье! Всего

хорошего!

Why! - Неужели! Now! - Ну! Alas! - Увы' Hi! Hey! - Эй! Hush! - Тише!

3. Sometimes other parts of speech and even elliptical sentences are used as interjections; in this case they lose their meaning and serve to express only some emotions or feelings:

Dear, dear! -Dear me! -Goodness! - Боже мой! Good gracious! — Good heavens! -Gracious! - For goodness sake!		I say! - Послушайте! Ну и ну! You don't say (so)! -Да ну! Не может быть! All right! - Ладно! Хорошо! Well I never! - Вот те на! Why so? — На каком основании? По какой причине? - Ради бога!
Goodness knows! It depends! There! There! There now!	- Кто его знает. - Как сказать! Поживём -увидим. - Ну! Ну! Не плачь(те).

Practice

1. Practice the following exclamations. Use them in the situa­tions of your own.

Ah, I told you so! Good heavens! I'm late.

Ah, here you are! Well, well! I can't believe it.

Oh, I'm so sorry. Well, what next?

Oh, yes! Oh, no! Well? What can I do for you?

Oh, what a lovely Why, it's quite easy!

flower! Hey, wait a minute, will you?

Oh, what a surprise! Here goes!

Oh, you don't say (so)! Hurrah!

Oh, I see. Phew!

2. Read the following texts and analyze all the interjections used in them. Retell the texts using as many exclamations as possible to make your story more emotional.

Jim's Two Jobs

Jim's father was the only butcher in the little town of Whiterock. His mother used to help his father in the butcher's shop to serve the customers and cut up the meat. Then, one day just before Christmas, she dropped dead on the floor of the shop. Jim and his father had a terrible Christmas that year, and it was very difficult for the butcher to look after his shop by himself in the new year.

Luckily, Jim finished school the next summer and had to get a job. He wanted to buy a motorcycle, so he started helping his father at the butcher's shop. After a while, he was very good at cutting up the meat, so his father sometimes left him alone in the shop when there weren't many customers. Jim always liked to have his long, white coat nice and clean. It was a sort of uniform.

Winter came and went, and then it was spring, but Jim still did not have enough money to buy his motorcycle. So he took a

second job, working in a hospital during the evenings. This job was hard work, helping to lift people out of beds and take them from one part of the hospital to another, but Jim liked it because he could wear a long, white coat in the hospital, too. He still thought it was a sort of uniform and felt very important when he was wearing it.

One evening when Jim was working at the hospital, he had to take a woman from her bed to the operating room. This was the woman's first operation, and she was very scared. She thought of how the doctor would cut her up. It was terrible! Then she saw Jim in his long, white coat and remembered see­ing him at the butcher's shop.

"Oh, no!" she screamed. "Not the butcher! Don't let the butcher do the operation!"

A Famous Place

Well, yes, yes I have. I have been there but I'm afraid I ha­ven't seen it properly. Well, that may sound a bit strange, but when I was a student at Oxford, I was at a party one night and several of us who had had a little bit to drink were sitting round and we thought it would be rather a romantic thing to do to drive off in the early hours of the morning, and watch the sun rise there. So we all got into the car and drove off for about, I suppose, an hour and a half, and we wanted to see the sun come up behind the stones. Well, when we got there, it was still dark, but it was extremely cold and extremely wet and very foggy. We couldn't, when the sun began to come up, when it began to get a little bit light, we couldn't in fact see anything at all be­cause there was so much, so much fog around.

Yeah, it was a bit of a disaster because the worst thing was that we were all sitting shivering in the car when this great thump came on the window and a policeman shone his torch inside and said, "Oi, Oi, Oi, what are you doing here?" and told us to move on.

I think he thought we were going to paint pictures all over it because you know that has happened from time to time. Any­way, it was not the most successful of our trips.

Oh, goodness! However, I do still remember that trip! Why so?