Sun spots

Have you ever seen someone with a lot of freckles? Freckles are small dark spots on the skin. Sometimes people get freckles when they spend time outdoors in direct sunlight.

Strangely enough, the sun has “freckles”, too. These dark places on the sun’s surface are called sunspots. You should not try to see these spots because your eyes can be damaged by looking directly at the sun. But astronomers can safely observe sunspots by looking through their telescopes.

A sunspot usually lasts for a day or two. It is not really a “spot” at all but a hole. The surface of the sun is made of very hot gasses. In some places the gases whirl around and get cooler. These cooler whirlpools are darker than the rest of the surface and look like spots.

Scientists have learned that sunspots usually occur in eleven- year – old cycles. At the beginning and end of each cycle there are very few sunspots. But in the middle years of a cycle there may be hundreds of sunspots.

There may be a link between sunspots and life on the Earth. For instance, trees seem to grow faster during the years when there are more sunspots. About three hundred years ago sunspots practically disappeared for a period of seventy years. No one knows why. During those same years something changed the normal growth of trees. Scientists can see the pattern of a tree’s growth by examining the annual rings in the wood when the tree is cut down. The rings of very old trees show very little growth between 1645 and 1715 – the years the sunspots disappeared.

Mark the statements T (True) or F (False)

1. Freckles are dark spots on the sun’s surface.

2. Eyes could be hurt if you look straight at the sun.

3. It is NOT safe to use a telescope without special glasses.

4. Sunspots are not real spots, they are holes.

5. A sunspot lasts for two or more days.

6. A sunspot is a cooler place on the surface of the sun.

7. A sunspot cycle lasts for seventy years.

8. There are usually more sunspots at the beginning of each cycle.

9. The number of sunspots can reach hundreds.

10. Scientists think that somehow life on the Earth is connected with sunspots.

11. It is quite clear why there were few sunspots between 1645 and 1715.

12. Trees seem to grow faster when there are more sunspots.

13. The pattern of a tree can be seen on the cut part of the tree.

14. Trees grew very rapidly from 1645 to 1715.

Circle the correct item

1. Freckles are small dark spots on the skin and people get them…

a) eating a lot of cakes and sweets

b) when they spend time indoors playing computer games

c) when they are not wearing sunglasses

d) when they spend time outdoors in direct sunlight

2. The sun has got ‘freckles’ i.e. dark places …

a) on the sun’s surface

b) on the moon

c) on the sun’s ground

d) on the earth

3. Astronomers can safely observe sunspots by looking through their …

a) horoscopes

b) microscopes

c) telephones

d) telescopes

4. Scientists have learned that sunspots usually occur in …

a) ten-year-old cycles

b) eleven-year-old cyclones

c) one-year-old cycles

d) eleven-year-old cycles

5. About three hundred years ago sunspots practically disappeared …

a) from the earth surface

b) for a period of seventy years

c) forever

d). for a period of seventeen years

6.The rings of very old trees show very little growth between 1645 and 1715 – …

1. the years the sunspots disappeared

2. the years of World War

3. the years of the sun appeared

4. the years when the freckles appeared

Text № 14

Mount Vesuvius, a volcano located between the ancient Italian cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, has received much attention because of its frequent and destructive eruptions. The most famous of these eruptions occurred in A. D. 79.

The volcano had been inactive for centuries. There was little warning of the coming eruption, although one account unearthed by archaeologists says that a hard rain and a strong wind had disturbed the celestial calm during the preceding night. Early the next morning, the volcano poured a huge river of molten rock down upon Herculaneum, completely burying the city and filling in the harbour with coagulated lava. Meanwhile, on the other side of the mountain, cinders, stone and ash rained down on Pompeii. Sparks from the burning ash ignited the combustible rooftops quickly. Large portions of the city were destroyed in the conflagration. Fire, however, was not the only cause of destruction. Poisonous sulphuric gases saturated the air. These heavy gases were not buoyant in the atmosphere and therefore sank toward the earth and suffocated people.

Over the years, excavations of Pompeii and Herculaneum have revealed a great deal about the behaviour of the volcano. By analyzing data, much as a zoologist dissects a specimen animal, scientists have concluded that the eruption changed large portions of the area's geography. For instance, it turned the Sarno River from its course and raised the level of the beach along the Bay of Naples. Meteorologists studying these events have also concluded that Vesuvius caused a huge tidal wave that affected the world's climate. In addition to making these investigations, archaeologists have been able to study the skeletons of victims by using distilled water to wash away the volcanic ash. By strengthening the brittle bones with acrylic paint, scientists have been able to examine the skeletons and draw conclusions about the diet and habits of the residents. Finally, the excavations at both Pompeii and Herculaneum have yielded many examples of classical art, such as jewellery made of bronze, which is an alloy of copper and tin.

The eruption of Mount Vesuvius and its tragic consequences have provided us with a wealth of data about the effects that volcanoes can have on the surrounding area. Today volcanologists can locate and predict eruptions, saving lives and preventing the destruction of cities and cultures.

Mark the statements T (True) or F (False)

1. Mount Vesuvius is well-known because of its frequent and destructive eruptions.

2. The most famous of these eruptions occurred in 1765.

3. On the other side of the mountains, cinders, stone and ash rained down on Athens.

4. Fire, however, was not the only cause of destruction.

5. The eruption didn’t change large portions of the area’s geography.

6. Scientists have concluded that the eruption changed large portions of the area’s geography.

7. Archaeologists have been able to study the skeletons of different animals by using distilled water to wash away the volcanic ash.

8. The excavations at both Pompeii and Herculaneum have yielded many examples of classical art, such as jewellery made of gold.

9. The eruption of Mount Vesuvius and its tragic consequences have provided us with a wealth of data about the effects that volcanoes can have on the surrounding area.

10. Today volcanologists can’t locate and predict eruptions.

Circle the correct item

1. Herculaneum and its harbour were buried under ... lava.

a) liquid b) solid c) flowing d) gas e) answer not available

2. The poisonous gases were not ... in the air.

a) able to float b) visible c) able to evaporate d) invisible e) able to condense

3. Scientists analyzed data about Vesuvius in the same way that a zoologist ... a specimen.

a) describes in detail b) studies by cutting apart c) photographs d) chart e) answer not available

4. ... have concluded that the volcanic eruption caused a tidal wave.

a) Scientists who study oceans b) Scientists who study atmospheric conditions c) Scientists who study ash d) Scientists who study animal behaviour e) Answer not available in article

5. Scientists have used ... water to wash away volcanic ash from the skeletons of victims.

a) bottled b) volcanic c) purified d) sea e) fountain

Text № 15

Many great inventions are greeted with ridicule and disbelief. The invention of the airplane was no exception. Although many people who heard about the first powered flight on December 17, 1903, were excited and impressed, others reacted with peals of laughter. The idea of flying an aircraft was repulsive to some people. Such people called Wilbur and Orville Wright, the inventors of the first flying machine, impulsive fools. Negative reactions, however, did not stop the Wrights. Impelled by their desire to succeed, they continued their experiments in aviation.

Orville and Wilbur Wright had always had a compelling interest in aeronautics and mechanics. As young boys they earned money by making and selling kites and mechanical toys. Later, they designed a newspaper-folding machine, built a printing press, and operated a bicycle-repair shop. In 1896, when they read about the death of Otto Lilienthal, the brother's interest in flight grew into a compulsion.

Lilienthal, a pioneer in hang-gliding, had controlled his gliders by shifting his body in the desired direction. This idea was repellent to the Wright brothers, however, and they searched for more efficient methods to control the balance of airborne vehicles. In 1900 and 1901, the Wrights tested numerous gliders and developed control techniques. The brothers' inability to obtain enough lift power for the gliders almost led them to abandon their efforts.

After further study, the Wright brothers concluded that the published tables of air pressure on curved surfaces must be wrong. They set up a wind tunnel and began a series of experiments with model wings. Because of their efforts, the old tables were repealed in time and replaced by the first reliable figures for air pressure on curved surfaces. This work, in turn, made it possible for them to design a machine that would fly. In 1903 the Wrights built their first airplane, which cost less than one thousand dollars. They even designed and built their own source of propulsion- a lightweight gasoline engine. When they started the engine on December 17, the airplane pulsated wildly before taking off. The plane managed to stay aloft for twelve seconds, however, and it flew one hundred twenty feet.

By 1905 the Wrights had perfected the first airplane that could turn, circle, and remain airborne for half an hour at a time. Others had flown in balloons or in hang gliders, but the Wright brothers were the first to build a full-size machine that could fly under its own power. As the contributors of one of the most outstanding engineering achievements in history, the Wright brothers are accurately called the fathers of aviation.

Mark the statements T (True) or F (False)

1. Many great inventions are greeted with ridicule and disbelief.

2. Although many people who heard about the first powered flight on October 17, 1903, were excited and impressed, others reacted with peals of laughter.

3. The inventors of the first flying machine were Wilbur and Orville Wright.

4. Orville and Wilbur Wright had always had a compelling interest in chemistry and physics.

5. Two brothers designed a newspaper-folding machine, built a printing press, and operated a bicycle-repair shop.

6. In 1902 and 1904, the Wrights tested numerous gliders and developed control techniques.

7. The Wright brothers set up a wind tunnel and began a series of experiments with model wings.

8. In 1903 the Wrights built their first airplane, which cost less than five thousand dollars.

9. The plane managed to stay aloft for twenty-two seconds, however, and it flew two hundred thirty feet.

10. The Wright brothers are accurately called the fathers of aviation.

Circle the correct item

1. The idea of flying an aircraft was ... to some people.

a) boring b) distasteful c) exciting d) needless e) answer not available

2. People thought that the Wright brothers had ...

a) acted without thinking b) been negatively influenced c) been too cautious d) had not given enough thought e) acted in a negative way

3. The Wright's interest in flight grew into a ...

a) financial empire b) plan c) need to act d) foolish thought e) answer not in article

4. Lilenthal's idea about controlling airborne vehicles was ... the Wrights.

a) proven wrong by b) opposite to the ideas of c) disliked by d) accepted by e) opposed by

5. The old tables were ... and replaced by the first reliable figures for air pressure on curved surfaces.

a) destroyed b) cancelled c) multiplied d) discarded e) not used

6. The Wrights designed and built their own source of ...

a) force for moving forward b) force for turning around c) turning d) force to going backward e) none of the above

Text № 16

From "K2: A Trek to Danger's Doorstep" by Graham Bowley, The New York Times, 2010

One day last June, I roped up to a porter and we leaped over crevasses until we reached the side of K2, the second-tallest mountain on earth and one of its deadliest. We scrambled up a few hundred yards to the Gilkey Memorial, a rocky, sandy promontory at K2 Base Camp that commemorates climbers who have died on K2's dangerous slopes.

The air was loud with the sound of ravens. Metal mess plates, punched with the names of some of the fallen climbers, tinkled gently in the breeze. About 12,000 feet above us, the top of the mountain was hidden by cloud; only its vast toes of black and brown rock were visible, stretching down onto the frigid boulder-strewn rubble of the Godwin-Austen Glacier a few hundred feet below.

It was just below freezing. Descending quickly, I tried not to look at the warren of rocks around me where some of the bodies, blasted by storms down K2's slopes, were

buried. Parts of some of the bodies were visible, and occasionally I glimpsed a piece of ripped climbing suit or an old boot, or smelled something sickly on the air.

The experience must have affected one of my Balti porters, Abbas. Later, around midnight, he ran barefoot over the dangerous crevasses back toward the memorial, my porters told me, screaming to the dead that he belonged with them. A couple of the other porters held him down and brought him back to the tent. Believing he was possessed, they read the Koran to soothe him, but he bolted again.

At 5 a.m. when I lifted the flap of the mess tent, Abbas was asleep on a mat on the cold, stony floor, his hands and feet trussed. When he awoke, he was untied, and he rubbed his wrists groggily. He shook his head 'no' when I offered porridge and green tea. He staggered outside to the porters' shelter, a circle of blue-tarpaulin-covered stones where half a dozen porters were throwing down gasoline, lighting wisps of purple flames to warm themselves in the clear, freezing dawn.

I had finally realized my goal of reaching the base camp at K2, in the heart of the Karakoram Mountain range in northern Pakistan. Situated on the western edge of the Himalayas, the range contains one of the highest concentrations of the world's tallest peaks. My goal was to research a book about the climbers who challenge these slopes and in particular an accident on K2 in 2008 when 11 people died, one of the worst disasters in Himalayan mountaineering history. At 28,251 feet, K2 is almost 800 feet shorter than Mount Everest, the world's tallest mountain. But while Everest has been largely demythologized by a seemingly constant stream of films, books and magazine articles, K2 - distant and reclusive — has retained an aura of mystery and danger. Among hard-core mountaineers its ascent is considered a far greater achievement than Everest.

The statistics support this. In the 2009 season, some 450 climbers reached the top of Everest while none summited K2. But K2 is not just more challenging; it is also more deadly. By the end of the 2009 climbing season, only 296 people had ever conquered K2, and at least 77 had died trying, a much higher casualty rate than for Everest.

I thought about this as I stood awestruck that cold morning, staring up at K2's stark face, and contemplated whether Abbas, in his frenzy, understood something intrinsic about this mountain and its reputation for death.

Mark the statements T (True) or F (False)

1. K2 is the tallest mountain in the world.

2. There is a memorial at the K2 base camp to commemorate climbers who have died.

3. The text suggests that the porter, Abbas, was frightened because of the many deaths that have occurred on K2.

4. K2 is located in the Himalayas in northern Pakistan.

5. The author's goal was to reach the summit of K2.

6. No one successfully summited K2 in 2009.

7. The author believes that Mount Everest is a more difficult climb than K2.

8. K2 is over 28,000 feet tall.

9. The author suggests that K2 is not as dangerous as Everest.

10. The author of the article is unimpressed by K2.

Circle the correct item

l. K2 is …

a) the tallest mountain in the world

b) the second tallest mountain in the world

c) the most famous mountain in the world

d) the name of a climbing competition in Pakistan

2. Why does the Gilkey Memorial exist?

a) To honor the first man to climb K2.

b) To mark the beginning of the ascent to K2's peak.

c) To serve as a shelter from bad weather.

d) To commemorate climbers who have died on K2.

3. In the rocks surrounding the base camp, the author sees …

a) corpses and old climbing gear lost during past ascents

b) metal mess plates

c) porters arguing over whether or not to continue the ascent

d) tents and fires to keep the climbers warm

4. Abbas, one of the author's porters, was tied down to his mat because ...

a) he had stolen climbing gear from the author

b) he was feverish because of the cold and wanted to leave

c) he was disturbed by the sight of dead climbers

d) he was unable to make the ascent with the author

5. What was the author's primary motivation for journeying to K2?

a) He was doing research for a book on people's attempts to scale K2.

b) He planned to publish an article detailing his climbs to the base camps of K2 and Mount Everest.

c) He intended to reach the top of K2 and write a book about the achievement.

d) He hoped to honor the climbers who had died climbing K2.

6. Which of the following best sums up K2's reputation among mountaineers?

a) K2 is shorter and easier to summit than Mount Everest.

b) Even though K2's conditions are more challenging than those of Everest, more people successfully complete the climb.

c) K2 has an aura of mystery, though the climb is relatively risk-free.

d) K2, while shorter than Everest, is a more dangerous and deadly summit.

7. In this piece, the word 'concentrations' means …

a) intense focusing

b) condensed groups

c) difficult challenges

d) geographical hazards

8. Which adjective best describes K2?

a) apromontory

b) mythological

c) murderous

d) perilous

9. In 2009, 450 people reached the top of Mount Everest, while only about … had ever reached the top of K2.

a) 200

b) 100

c) 400

d) 300

10. At the end of the article the author wonders…

a) if Abbas, his porter, had a good reason to fear the mountain

b) if people are too intimidated by K2

c) why so many people have died trying to climb K2

d) if he will be able to reach the top of the mountain

Text № 17

Bowling is one of the oldest and most popular indoor sports. More Americans compete in bowling than in any other sport. Every year in the United States, about 39 million persons roll balls down gleaming wooden lanes to try to knock down the 10 pins. Bowling is becoming increasingly popular in other countries as well, especially in Canada, Japan, and the Latin-American nations. In addition to tenpin bowling, many people enjoy other forms of the sport, including boccie, candlepins, duckpins, fivepins, lawn bowling, and ninepins.

Until 1950s, bowling was considered to be a sport for bowlers only. But today, major bowling tournaments attract thousands of spectators. In addition, bowling tournaments rank among the most popular sports shows on television.

People have competed in various forms of bowling for thousands of years. The earliest evidence of the sport dates back to ancient Egypt. Archaeologists discovered equipment for a game resembling bowling that had been buried with an Egyptian child about 5200 B.C. The ancient Polynesians played a game that involved rolling small balls at round, flat disks about 4 inches in diameter. They rolled the balls 60 feet, the distance used in bowling today.

Modern forms of bowling can be traced back to the Middle Ages. In Germany, village dances and celebration of baptisms included bowling. The Germans rolled or threw stones at nine wooden clubs. Bowling appeared in England as early as 1100’s. The game became so popular that English people began to consider it more important than archery. But archery had such a vital role in the defense of England that Parliament outlawed bowling for a time.

Bowling became increasingly popular in the United States during 1800s. But gambling on the sport became so widespread that bowling came to be considered a social evil. In 1841, the Connecticut legislature outlawed “bowling at nine pins.” Bowlers evaded the ban by adding a pin – and thus started the 10-pin game.

Mark the statements T (True) or F (False)

1. Bowling is one of the oldest and most popular outdoor sports.

2. More Americans compete in bowling than any other sport.

3. Bowling is becoming increasingly popular in other countries, especially in Canada. Japan and African nations.

4. Until 1940s bowling was considered a sport for the bowlers only.

5. But today, major basketball tournaments attract thousands of spectators.

6. The earliest evidence of the sport dates back to ancient Egypt.

7. The ancient Polynesians rolled the balls 70 feet, the distance used in bowling today.

8. Modern forms of bowling can be traced back to the Middle Ages.

9. The French rolled or threw stones at nine wooden clubs.

10. Bowling became increasingly popular in the United States during the 1800´s.

Circle the correct item

1. Bowling is one of the oldest and most popular … sports.

1. inside

2. outdoor

3. indoor

2. More Americans compete in bowling than in any other …

1. game

2. sport

3. competition

3. Bowling is becoming … in other countries as well.

1. more and more popular

2. increasingly popular

3. very popular

4. Until 1950s bowling was considered to be a sport for …

1. boys only

2. bowlers only

3. sportsmen only

5. Bowling tournaments rank among the most popular sports shows …

1. on television

2. in internet

3. on radio

6. The earliest evidence of the sport dates back to …

1. ancient Greece

2. ancient Egypt

3. ancient Rome

7. The ancient Polynesians played a game that involved rolling small balls at round, flat disks about … inches in diameter.

1. 4

2. 6

3. 3

8. Modern forms of bowling can be … to the middle Ages.

1. searched

2. traced back

3. originated

9. The game became so popular that English people began to consider it more important than …

1. football

2. tennis

3. archery

Text № 18