2. Phraseological Equivalents;

Phraseological unites or idioms can also have permanent or variable equivalence.

e.g. – “the game isn’t worth the candle ” – “игра не стоит свеч”.other permanent equivalence are based on different images.

- “to get up on the wrong type of the bed”

Now an English idiom may have Russian equivalent. The translator has to choose from them:

e.g. – “do in Rom as the Romans do” – “в чужой монастырь со своими знаниями не ходят”

The translator may prefer an occasional equivalent and it can be formed by a word-for-word reproduction of unites:

e.g. – “В Риме поступай, т.к. римляне.”

3. Grammatical Equivalents.

Choosing gr-l unites in the TT, we should pay great attention to the semantics and combinability of its lex-l elements. There are practically no permanent gram-l equivalents:

e.g. “He was a guest of honour a reception given by the government.”

Participle II “given” corresponds both to the R. part “устроенном” or attributive clause “был устроен”.

The use of the occasional equivalent is more common than in the case of lex-l or phrasseolog-l unites.

2. Equivalent-Lacking Words.

No small number of SL unites have no regular equivalents in the TL, these are called equivalent lacking words. They are often found among SL names of specific national phenomena such as “coroner” – “коронер” – an official who investigates the course of any death thought to be from violent or unnatural courses.

e.g. “impeachment” – “импичмент”- distress is expressed.

However there are quite a number of ordinary words which have no equivalent lexical unites in the TL.

e.g. “bidder” – who beats a card – делающий заявку в карточных играх.

“conservationist” – член организации по охране природы и экологии.

When new words come into being to denote new object or phenomena, they naturally cant have regular equivalents. Such equivalents may only gradually evolve as the result of extensive contacts bt the 2 nations.

e.g. – “In many European countries central streets have been pedestrionized.” – “Движение транспорта было запрещено.”

There are quite a number of equivalent lacking idioms they are translated either by reproducing their form in the TL through a word translation or by explaining the figurative meaning of the idiom.

e.g. – “People who live in glass houses should not through stones.” – “люди, живущие в стеклянных домах, не должны бросать камни”

- “to see eye-to eye with smb” = “to stick to the same point of view” – “придерживаться одних взглядов”

Equivalent lacking grammatical forms have occasional substitutes that can be classified under the following main headings.

1. Zero translations.

e.g. – “By that time he had already left Britain. ” – “К этому времени он уже уехал из Англии.”

The idea of priority is expressed differently in the original and in translation. It is expressed by the Past Perfect and “by that time” and “by already”.

Zero translations take place when the meaning of the grammatical unite is not rendered in the translation since it is identical to the meaning of some other unite and can be safely left out. As the Past Perfect doesn’t exist in Russian, it can be safely left out.

2. Approximate translations are used when the translator makes use of a TL form partially equivalent to the equivalent lacking SL unite.

e.g. “I saw him enter the room.” – “Я видел, как он вошел в комнату.”

Simple sentences + Complex Object which does not exist in Russian.

The object clauses in Russian “как, он вошел в комнату” is the sufficient approximation of the English Complex Object construction.

3. Transformational translation. Is used when the translator resorts to one of the grammatical translations.

e.g. – “Your presence at the meeting is not obligatory, nor it is desirable.” – “Ваше присутствие на собрании необязательно и даже не желательно.”

The 2 sentences are made into one by syntactical or lexical integration.

The ways of translation of occasional equivalents in general:

1. Loan words. The translator, when he comes across an equivalent lacking words resorts to occasional equivalents. Loan words imitate in the TL the form / source lg word or word-combination.

e.g. “tribalism” – “трибализм” – an organization of a social group into a tribe.

“backbencher” – “заднескамеечник”

by means of morphemes, it means an official opposition to the government.

“brain-drain” – “утечка мозгов” are different unites.

2. Approximate substitutes. It is using TL words with similar meaning which is extended to convey additional information.

e.g, “drug- store” – аптека и магазин

“witchhunter” - “мракобес”

The Russian word “аптека” is not a drugstore because there also are sold drugs, juices, ice-creams.

3. All kinds of lexical translations:

They modify the meaning of a source lg word.

e.g. “He died of exposure.”

It may be translated “он умер от простуды, от солнечного удара, замерз в снегах”

4. The explanation or explication as away of translating English equivalents – conveys the meaning of the SL unite.

e.g. “landslide” – победа на выборах подавляющим большинством голосов.

III. Tr-or’s False Friends.

There are words in the SLg and TLg which are more or less similar in form. Such words are of great interest to the Tr-or since he is naturally inclined to take the formal similiarity for the semantic proximity and to regard the words that look alike as permanent eq-nts. The formal similarity is usually the result of 2 words having the common origin. They are mainly derived from either Greek or Latin. Greek words can be found in a number of lg-s. they are called international words. Very few international words have the same meaning in different lg-s. such words as “theatre”, ………………….

However in most cases the semantics of such words in Engl and in Rus don’t coincide. In Linguistics such words are called “pseudointernational”. This formal similarity suggesting that they are interchangeable is deceptive and may lead to Tr errors. For that reason they are often referred to as “the Tr-or’s False Friends”.