Approaches to metonymy treatment

1. Semasiological approach. It is considered to be one of the principal ways of the semantic change of linguistic units.

2. Onomasiological approach. It is treated as the general principle of nomination, for example naming of psychological phenomena on the basis of their external physiological expression, mimic, jests, for example, тремтіти – to be afraid, червоніти – to be ashamed, рвати на собі волосся – to be in despair

Stylistic approach. Metonymy is considered to be one of the tropes.

Metonymy occurs quite regularly, in comparison to other types of semantic change, within some semantic groups.

For nounsThe container for the thing contained, for example, Ukr.: склянка (випив склянку), зал (аплодував), місто (зустрічає гостя), Eng.:a cup (drank a cup), a kettle (is boiling)

The material for the thing made of it, for example, Ukr.: чай, салат (рослина – страва), золото (вироби з нього) Eng.: marble (the statue made of marble), silver (coin), glass(articles made of glass)

The object for what is on it, for example, Ukr.:стіл (їжа), лікті (протерлися), Eng.: dish

The object for a certain activity, for example, Ukr.:гкорона, скіпетр, трон (влада монарха), булава(гетьманство), Eng.:

The sign for the thing signified, for example, Ukr.:номер (окремий примірник газети, журналу, окрема кімната в готелі, окремий виступ артиста), трійка (гральна карта, трамвай №3), , Eng.: from the cradle to the grave (from childhood to death), arena (Lat. Sand – a reminder that sand was used to strew the floors of the ancient amphitheatres

The feature (quality, action etc.) for its subject. Here metonymy can reflect the transference from abstract to concrete, from action to object etc. For example, Ukr.: магістр, граф (про носія титулу), талант (він талант),симпатія(про людину), весілля(святкування) Eng.: the authorities (were greeted)

The action for its time, place, result, object or subject, for example, Ukr.: косовиця, прохід, набір, випуск, шиття, креслення, рада), Eng.: pass

for verbs Process the object in a way and obtain, extract or liquidate something as the result, for example, Ukr.: копати (землю/яму), доїти (корову/молоко), полоти (город/бур’ян), штопати (одяг/дірку), Eng.: to milk

The action of the subject and the state of the object, for example, Ukr.: протікає (вода/стеля), облазить (шкіра/спина

Metonymy frequently occurs in phraseological units, for example, Ukr.: до сивого волосся (до старості), піднімати руки (здаватися в полон) English: to put one’s foot down

Hyperbole (from Greek ύπερβολή – overexageration) is based on intentional exaggeration of the quantity and size of objects, intensity of a feature or an act aimed at making the image of an object more distinct and thus, the utterance- more convincing.

For example, Ukr.: півтора чоловіка (дуже мало людей), скажу два слова, море крові, черепашача швидкість; Eng.: haven’t seen you for ages, I hate troubling you, a thousand thanks.

• Litotesis aimed at making the statement less categorical through the use of indirect designation of a certain notion, namely through the negation of the notion that is opposite to the given. Litotes can be based on

negation, for example, Ukr.: не заперечую (погоджуюсь), неважко (легко); Eng.: no coward, not bad;

double negation, for example, Ukr.: така подія не видається неможливою. Not characteristic of English.;

without negation, for example, Eng.: I could do with a cup of coffee. Not characteristic of Ukrainian.

Irony is the type of the semantic change which occurs when a word with a positive or assertive connotation (in a wide sense) is used to denote opposite characteristics. It is usually pronounced with a specific intonation, which in written form can be marked by inverted commas. For example, Ukr.: святий та божий, частувати (палицею), нагородити (стусаном), Eng.: a pretty mess.