Раздел 1ii дополнительные тексты для самостоятельной работы

Government of the United Kingdom

Her Majesty's Government, commonly referred to as HM Government (HMG), the British Government or the UK Government, is the central government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

The Government is led by the Prime Minister, who selects all the remaining Ministers. The Prime Minister and the other most senior Ministers belong to the supreme decision-making committee, known as the Cabinet. The Government Ministers are all members of Parliament, and are accountable to it. The Government is dependent on Parliament to make primary legislation, which means that in practice a government must seek re-election at least every five years. The monarch selects the Prime Minister as the leader of the party most likely to command a majority in Parliament. Under the unwritten British constitution, executive authority lies with the monarch, although this authority is exercised only by, or on the advice of, the Prime Minister and the Cabinet. The Cabinet members advise the monarch as members of the Privy Council. They also exercise power directly as leaders of the Government Departments.

A key principle of the British Constitution is that the Government is responsible to Parliament. This is called responsible government.

Ministers of the Crown are responsible to the House in which they sit, they make statements in that House and take questions from members of that House. For most senior Ministers this is usually the elected House of Commons rather than the House of Lords. There have been some recent exceptions to this, for example cabinet ministers Lord Mandelson (First Secretary of State) and Lord Adonis (Secretary of State for Transport) sat in the Lords and were responsible to that House during the government of Gordon Brown.

In modern times the Prime Minister must always be an elected member of Parliament (MP) and therefore accountable to the House of Commons. If a government loses the confidence of the House of Commons it must either resign or a General Election is held. The support of the Lords, while useful to the government in getting its legislation passed without delay, is not vital. A government is not required to resign even if it loses the confidence of the Lords and is defeated in key votes in that House. The House of Commons is so the responsible House.

The British Monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II, is the Head of State of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and Her Other Realms and Territories.

The Queen takes little direct part in government, and must remain strictly neutral in political affairs. However, the legal authority known as the Crown remains the source of the executive power used by the Government.

These powers are known as Royal Prerogative and can be used for a vast number of things, such as the issue or withdrawal of passports, to the dismissal of the Prime Minister or even the Declaration of War. The powers are delegated from the Monarch personally, in the name of the Crown, and can be handed to various ministers, or other Officers of the Crown, and can purposely bypass the consent of Parliament.

The head of Her Majesty’s Government, the Prime Minister, also has weekly meetings with the monarch, where she may express her feelings, warn, or advise the Prime Minister in the Government's work.

Arthur C. Clarke

Sir Arthur Charles Clarke (16 December 1917 – 19 March 2008) was a British science fiction author, inventor, and futurist, famous for his short stories and novels, among them 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), and as a host and commentator in the British television series Mysterious World. For many years, Robert A. Heinlein, Isaac Asimov, and Clarke were known as the "Big Three" of science fiction.

Clarke was born in Minehead, Somerset, England. As a boy, he grew up on a farm enjoying stargazing and reading old American science fiction pulp magazines. During the Second World War he served in the Royal Air Force as a radar specialist and was involved in the early warning radar defence system which contributed to the RAF's success during the Battle of Britain. Clarke spent most of his wartime service working on Ground Controlled Approach (GCA) radar. After the war he earned a first-class degree in mathematics and physics at King's College London.

In the postwar years, Clarke became the Chairman of the British Interplanetary Society from 1946–1947 and again from 1951–1953. Although he was not the originator of the concept of geostationary satellites, one of his most important contributions may be his idea that they would be ideal telecommunications relays. The concept was published in Wireless World in October 1945. Clarke also wrote a number of non-fiction books describing the technical details and societal implications of rocketry and space flight. The most notable of these may be The Exploration of Space (1951) and The Promise of Space (1968). In recognition of these contributions the geostationary orbit 36,000 kilometres above the equator is officially recognised by the International Astronomical Union as a Clarke Orbit.

His first professional novel appeared in Astounding Science Fiction in 1946, Along with his writing Clarke briefly worked as Assistant Editor of Science Abstracts (1949) before devoting himself to writing full-time from 1951 onward.

In 1948 he wrote "The Sentinel" for a BBC competition. Though the story was rejected, it changed the course of Clarke's career. Not only was it the basis for 2001: A Space Odyssey, but "The Sentinel" also introduced a more cosmic element to Clarke's work. Many of Clarke's later works feature a technologically advanced but still-prejudiced mankind being confronted by a superior alien intelligence. In the cases of The City and the Stars (and its original version, Against the Fall of Night), Childhood's End, and the 2001 series, this encounter produces a conceptual breakthrough that accelerates humanity into the next stage of its evolution.

Clarke lived in Sri Lanka from 1956 until his death in 2008, He was an avid scuba diver and a member of the Underwater Explorers Club. In 1956, while scuba diving, Clarke uncovered ruined masonry, architecture and idol images of the sunken original Koneswaram temple — including carved columns with flower insignias, and stones in the form of elephant heads — spread on the shallow surrounding seabed

His many predictions culminated in 1958 when he began a series of magazine essays that eventually became Profiles of the Future, published in book form in 1962. A timetable up to the year 2100 describes inventions and ideas including such things as a "global library".

James Dyson

Sir James Dyson (born 2 May 1947) is a British industrial designer and founder of the Dyson company. He is best known as the inventor of the Dual Cyclone bagless vacuum cleaner, which works on the principle of cyclonic separation. His net worth in 2011 was said to be £1.45 billion.

Dyson was born in Cromer, Norfolk, England, being one of three children. Dyson went to a boarding school from 1956 to 1965, when his father died of cancer. James excelled in long distance running: "I was quite good at it, not because I was physically good, but because I had more determination. I learnt determination from it." He spent one year (1965–1966) at Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design, and then studied furniture and interior design at the Royal College of Art (1966–1970) before moving into engineering.

In the late 1970s, Dyson had the idea of using cyclonic separation to create a vacuum cleaner that would not lose suction as it picked up dirt. He became frustrated with his Hoover Junior’s diminishing performance: dust kept clogging the dust bag, reducing suction. The cyclone idea came from the spray-finishing room's air filter in his Ballbarrow factory.

Partly supported by his wife's salary as an art teacher, and after five years and many prototypes, Dyson launched the "G-Force" cleaner in 1983. However, no manufacturer or distributor would handle his product in the UK, as it would disturb the valuable market for replacement dust bags, so Dyson launched it in Japan through catalogue sales. Manufactured in bright pink, the G-Force sold for £2,000 (British equivalent). It won the 1991 International Design Fair prize in Japan. He obtained his first U.S. patent on the idea in 1986.

After failing to sell his invention to the major manufacturers, Dyson set up his own manufacturing company. In June 1993, he opened his research centre and factory in Malmesbury, Wiltshire.

Dyson's breakthrough in the UK market, more than 10 years after the initial idea, was through a TV advertising campaign that emphasized that, unlike most of its rivals, it did not require the continuing purchase of replacement bags. At that time, the UK market for disposable cleaner bags was £100 million. The slogan "say goodbye to the bag" proved more attractive to the buying public than a previous emphasis on the suction efficiency that its technology delivers. The Dyson Dual Cyclone became the fastest-selling vacuum cleaner ever made in the UK, which outsold those of some of the companies that rejected his idea and has become one of the most popular brands in the UK, Following his success, other major manufacturers began to market their own cyclonic vacuum cleaners. Dyson sued Hoover UK for patent infringement and won around $5 million in damages.

In a highly controversial and bitterly opposed move, his manufacturing plant moved from England to Malaysia, for economic reasons and because of difficulty acquiring land for expansion, leaving 800 workers redundant in 2002. The company's headquarters and research facilities remain in Malmesbury. In 2005, Dyson incorporated the wheel ball from his Ballbarrow concept into a vacuum cleaner, creating the Dyson Ball, saying it makes it more maneuverable.

Dyson set up James Dyson Foundation in 2002 to support design and engineering education. This is specially aimed at inspiring young people to study engineering and become engineers by encouraging students to think differently and to make mistakes. The Foundation particularly supports schools as well as medical and scientific research in partnership with charities

Richard Branson

Sir Richard Charles Nicholas Branson (born 18 July 1950) is an English business magnate, best known as the founder and chairman of Virgin Group of more than 400 companies.

Branson was born in Blackheath, London. Branson has dyslexia and had poor academic performance as a student, but later discovered his ability to connect with others.

His first business venture was a magazine called Student at the age of 16. In 1970, he set up an audio-record mail-order business. In 1972, he opened a chain of record stores, Virgin Records, later known as Virgin Megastores. Branson's Virgin brand grew rapidly during the 1980s, as he set up Virgin Atlantic Airways and expanded the Virgin Records music label.

Branson started his record business from the crypt of a church where he ran The Student. Branson advertised popular records in The Student Magazine and it was an overnight success. Trading under the name "Virgin", he sold records for considerably less than the "High Street" outlets, especially the chain W. H. Smith. Branson once said, "There is no point in starting your own business unless you do it out of a sense of frustration." The name "Virgin" was suggested by one of Branson's early employees because they were all new at business. At the time, many products were sold under restrictive marketing agreements that limited discounting. Branson began the series of changes that led to large-scale discounting of recorded music.

Branson eventually started a record shop in Oxford Street in London in 1971. Earning enough money from his record store, Branson in 1972 launched the record label Virgin Records and bought a country estate, in which he installed a recording studio. Virgin signed such controversial bands as the Sex Pistols, which other companies were reluctant to sign. In 1992, to keep his airline company afloat, Branson sold the Virgin label to EMI for £500 million. Branson says that he wept when the sale was completed since the record business had been the birth of the Virgin Empire. He later created V2 Records to re-enter the music business.

Branson formed Virgin Atlantic Airways in 1984, launched Virgin Mobile in 1999, Virgin Blue in Australia (now named Virgin Australia) in 2000.

In 1993, Branson entered into the railway business. Virgin Trains won the franchises for the former Intercity West Coast and Cross-Country sectors of British Rail.

Virgin acquired European short-haul airline Euro Belgian Airlines in 1996 and renamed it Virgin Express. In 2006, the airline was merged with SN Brussels Airlines forming Brussels Airlines, Another airline, Virgin America, began flying out of San Francisco International Airport in August 2007. Branson has also developed a Virgin Cola brand and even a Virgin Vodka brand, which has not been a very successful enterprise. On 25 September 2004, Branson announced the signing of a deal under which a new space tourism company, Virgin Galactic, will license the technology behind Spaceship One to take paying passengers into suborbital space. Virgin Galactic (wholly owned by Virgin Group) plans to make flights available to the public with tickets priced at US$200,000.

Paul Smith (fashion designer)

Sir Paul Smith, CBE, RDI, (born in Beeston, Nottinghamshire on 5 July 1946) is an English fashion designer, whose business and reputation is founded upon his menswear. He is both commercially successful and highly respected within the fashion industry.

Smith was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II in 2000, after nearly three decades as a menswear icon. His collections of clothing and accessories for both men and women are usually identified by the presence of Smith's multistripe signature somewhere on each item.

Paul Smith left school at the age of 14. His only ambition was to become a racing cyclist until his father hauled him off to work at a clothing warehouse. Smith had no real interest in his work during his first two years there except for the cycle journey to and from his home. A terrible cycling accident put an end to his cycling ambitions, and it was only then that Smith's career in fashion design began. He enjoyed his job and had forgotten everything about cycling. Six months in hospital followed and during this time Smith made some new friends. After leaving hospital he arranged to meet them all at a local pub that was popular with art students. It was then that Paul Smith knew he wanted to be part of this colourful world of ideas, excitemen and fashion.

Paul Smith started to take evening classes for tailoring. Later on Paul Smith joined Lincroft Kilgour in Savile Row after being spotted by chairman Harold Tillman, where his designs were worn by celebrities including footballer George Best. With the help of his then girlfriend (now wife) Pauline Denyer, who was an RCA fashion graduate, and a small amount of savings, he managed to open his first shop in Nottingham in 1970. By 1976 Paul showed his first menswear collection in Paris, under the Paul Smith label. He gradually expanded the retail business, being the first fashion brand to open on Floral Street in London's Covent Garden in 1979, where his shop offered an eclectic combination of clothes and 'finds' for men which reflected his own magpie personality.

The international growth of his business began. A converted town-house in Notting Hill, London opened in 1998 and is now his flagship shop, with the company's operational heart remaining between Nottingham and London. In 1998 Paul showed his first women's collection at London Fashion Week. The women's mainline collection continues to this day.

Since 2007, Smith has opened shops in Dubai, Bangalore, Leeds, Antwerp, Los Angeles and another shop in London, in addition to a brand new warehouse building in Nottingham.Paul Smith remains fully involved in the business, designing clothes, choosing fabrics, approving the shop locations and overseeing every development within the company. He has showrooms in London, Paris, Milan, New York and Tokyo.

The success of Smith's business may be attributed to his understanding of his dual roles of both designer and retailer; the success of his designs to his combination of the classic and the quirky, which allows men to buy relatively traditional (and hence commercially popular) designs that offer a 'twist' of individuality

Elton John

Sir Elton Hercules John, CBE (born Reginald Kenneth Dwight on 25 March 1947), is an English rock singer-songwriter, composer, pianist and occasional actor. He has worked with lyricist Bernie Taupin as his songwriter partner since 1967; they have collaborated on more than 30 albums to date.

In his four-decade career John has sold more than 250 million records, making him one of the most successful artists of all time. His single "Candle in the Wind 1997" has sold over 33 million copies worldwide, and is the best selling single in the history of the UK Singles Chart and the US Billboard Hot 100. He has more than 50 Top 40 hits, including seven consecutive No. 1 US albums, 56 Top 40 singles, 16 Top 10, four No. 2 hits, and nine No. 1 hits. He has won six Grammy Awards, four Brit Awards, an Academy Award, a Golden Globe Award and a Tony Award. In 2004, Rolling Stone ranked him Number 49 on its list of the 100 greatest artists of all time.

John was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1994. Having been named a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1996, John received a knighthood from Queen Elizabeth II for "services to music and charitable services" in 1998. John has performed at a number of royal events, such as the funeral of Princess Diana at Westminster Abbey in 1997, and the Queen's Diamond Jubilee Concert outside Buckingham Palace in 2012.

He has been heavily involved in the fight against AIDS since the late 1980s. In 1992, he established the Elton John AIDS Foundation and a year later began hosting the annual Academy Award Party, which has since become one of the highest-profile Oscar parties in the Hollywood film industry. Since its inception, the foundation has raised over $200 million. In 2008, Billboard magazine ranked him as the most successful male solo artist on "The Billboard Hot 100 Top All-Time Artists" (third overall, behind only The Beatles and Madonna).

NORMAN FOSTER (ARCHITECT)

Norman Robert Foster, Baron Foster of Thames Bank, OM, FRIBA, FCSD, RDI (born 1 June 1935) is an English architect. His company has an international design practice. He is the United Kingdom's biggest builder of landmark office buildings.

Foster was born in Reddish, Stockport, England, to a working-class family. He did well at school and became interested in architecture. Foster was particularly interested in the works of Frank Lloyd Wright, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, and Le Corbusier.

He left school at 16 and worked in the Manchester City Treasurer's office. Next he joined the National Service in the Royal Air Force. After he was discharged, in 1956 Foster attended the University of Manchester's School of Architecture and City Planning. He graduated in 1961. He earned his Master's degree at the Yale School of Architecture. He then travelled in America for a year. He returned to the UK in 1963. Then he set up an architectural practice as Team 4. Team 4 quickly earned a reputation for high-tech industrial design. After Team 4 broke up, in 1967 Foster and Wendy Cheesman started Foster Associates. This later became Foster and Partners. From 1968, Foster worked with American architect Richard Buckminster Fuller until Fuller died in 1983. They worked on several projects that became important in the development of an environmentally sensitive approach to design.

Foster + Partners' first important building in the UK was the Willis Faber & Dumas headquarters in Ipswich, from 1974. The client was a family firm insurance company which wanted to restore a sense of community to the workplace. Foster created open-plan office floors long before open-plan became the standard. In a town that did not have a lot of public facilities, the roof gardens, 25m swimming pool and gymnasium are good benefits for the company's 1,200 employees. The building is wrapped in a full-height glass facade. This wall follows the medieval street plan. The facade shifts from opaque, reflective black to a glowing backlit transparency as the sun sets.

Today, Foster + Partners works with its engineers to use computer systems. They pay attention to basic physical laws such as convection. They have created efficient buildings like the Swiss Re London headquarters. The walls let in air for passive cooling and then let it out as it warms and rises.

Foster was knighted in 1990 and appointed to the Order of Merit in 1997. In 1999, he was created a life peer, as Baron Foster of Thames Bank. He is the second British architect to win the Stirling Prize twice.

Foster married business partner Wendy Cheesman. She died in 1989, leaving him with four sons. He next married Indian-born Begum Sabiha Rumani Malik. Foster and Sabiha divorced in 1998. Foster is now married to Elena Ochoa, Chairman of the Tate International Council, and founder of Ivory Press. He has five children and three grandchildren.

Foster flies his own private jet and helicopter between his homes in London, France, and Switzerland.

MARGARET THATCHER

Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, LG, OM, PC, FRS (née Roberts, 13 October 1925 – 8 April 2013) was a British Conservative Party politician who was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and the Leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990. She was the longest-serving British Prime Minister of the 20th century, and is the only woman to have held the post. A Soviet journalist called her the "Iron Lady", a nickname that became associated with her uncompromising politics and leadership style. As Prime Minister, she implemented policies that have come to be known as Thatcherism.

Originally a research chemist before becoming a barrister, Thatcher was elected Member of Parliament (MP) for Finchley in 1959. Edward Heath appointed her Secretary of State for Education and Science in his 1970 government. In 1975 Thatcher defeated Heath in the Conservative Party leadership election to become Leader of the Opposition, and the first woman to lead a major political party in the United Kingdom. She became Prime Minister after winning the 1979 general election.

After moving into 10 Downing Street, Thatcher introduced a series of political and economic initiatives to reverse what she perceived to be Britain's precipitous national decline. Her political philosophy and economic policies emphasised deregulation (particularly of the financial sector), flexible labour markets, the privatisation of state-owned companies, and reducing the power and influence of trade unions. Thatcher's popularity during her first years in office waned amid recession and high unemployment, until economic recovery and the 1982 Falklands War brought a resurgence of support, resulting in her re-election in 1983.

Thatcher was re-elected for a third term in 1987, but her Community Charge (popularly referred to as "poll tax") was widely unpopular and her views on the European Community were not shared by others in her Cabinet. She resigned as Prime Minister and party leader in November 1990, after Michael Heseltine launched a challenge to her leadership. Thatcher held a life peerage as Baroness Thatcher, of Kesteven in the County of Lincolnshire, which entitled her to sit in the House of Lords.

Marks & Spencer

Marks and Spencer plc (also known as M&S; colloquially known as Marks and Sparks, Marks's or, simply, Marks) is a major British retailer headquartered in the City of Westminster, London, with 703 stores in the United Kingdom and 361 stores spread across more than 40 countries. It specialises in the selling of clothing and luxury food products.

M&S was founded in 1884 by Michael Marks and Thomas Spencer in Leeds.The next few years saw Michael Marks and Tom Spencer open market stalls in many locations around the North West of England. Marks and Spencer, known colloquially as "Marks and Sparks", or "M&S", made its reputation in the early 20th century on a policy of only selling British-made goods (a policy discontinued in 2002). It entered into long term relationships with British manufacturers, and sold clothes and food under the "St Michael" brand, that was introduced in 1928. The St Michael honours Michael Marks. By 1950, virtually all goods were sold under the "St Michael" label. It also accepted the return of unwanted items, giving a full cash refund if the receipt was shown, no matter how long ago the product was purchased, which was unusual for the time. It adopted a 90-day returns policy in 2005 and on 12 April 2009 the refund policy changed once again to 35 days.

The company always put its main emphasis on quality, For most of its history it also had a reputation for offering fair value for money. Arguably, M&S has historically been an iconic retailer of 'British Quality Goods'. The uncompromising attitude towards customer relations was summarised by the 1953 slogan: "The customer is always and completely right!"

Energy efficiency was improved by the addition of thermostatically controlled refrigerators in 1963. As a later measure to improve food quality food labelling was improved and "sell by dates" was introduced between 1970 and 1972.

A cautious international expansion began with the introduction of Asian food in 1974. M&S opened stores in continental Europe in 1975 and in Ireland four years later. All international shops are operated under franchise, with the exception of those in the Republic of Ireland and Hong Kong, which remain in company ownership. In 1998, it became the first British retailer to make a pre-tax profit of over £1 billion, though a few years later it plunged into a crisis which lasted for several years.

Marks & Spencer launched an online shopping service in 1999. In February 2007, M&S announced the opening of the world's largest M&S shop outside the UK at Dubai Festival City. M&S is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index.

Unilever

Unilever is an Anglo–Dutch multinational consumer goods company. Its products include foods, beverages, cleaning agents and personal care products. It is the world's third-largest consumer goods company measured by 2011 revenues (after Procter & Gamble and Nestlé) and the world's largest maker of ice cream.

Unilever owns over 400 brands, amongst the largest selling of which are Axe/Lynx, Ben & Jerry's, Dove, Knorr, Lipton, Lux/Radox, Omo/Surf, Rexona/Sure and Sunsilk. Its 25 largest brands account for over 70 % of total sales. Unilever focuses resources on 13 "billion-Euro brands", each of which has annual sales in excess of €1 billion. Unilever organises its brands into four categories: Homecare, Personal Care, Foods and Refreshment (which includes tea, ice-cream and beverages).

Unilever was founded on 1 January 1930 by the merger of the British soapmaker Lever Brothers and the Dutch margarine producer Margarine Unie. It has made numerous corporate acquisitions, including of the brand Brooke Bond (maker of PG Tips tea), Chesebrough-Ponds (in 1987); Best Foods, Ben & Jerry's and Slim Fast (in 2000), Body Care products world wide and European Detergents from Sara Lee and Alberto-Culver (in 2010). On 14 October 2011, it was announced that Unilever had agreed to acquire 82 % of the Russia-based beauty company Kalina.

It is a dual-listed company consisting of Unilever N.V., based in Rotterdam, Netherlands, and Unilever PLC, based in London, United Kingdom. Both companies have the same directors and they operate as a single business. Unilever PLC has a primary listing on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index. It had a market capitalisation of £27.3 billion as of 23 December 2011, the 18th-largest of any company with a primary listing on the London Stock Exchange. Unilever N.V. has a primary listing on Euronext Amsterdam and is a constituent of the AEX index. Both Unilever PLC and Unilever N.V. have secondary listings on the New York Stock Exchange.

Unilever is multinational with operating companies and factories on every continent except Antarctica and research laboratories in England, the Netherlands, the United States, India and China. The company owns more than 400 brands, although its 25 largest brands account for over 70% of total sales. Unilever focuses resources on 13 "billion-Euro brands", each of which has annual sales in excess of €1 billion. Unilever organises its brands into four categories: Homecare, Personal Care, Foods and Refreshment (which includes tea, ice-cream and beverages).

Unilever is one of the largest media buyers in the world, and invested around €6 billion (US$8 billion) in advertising and promotion in 2010.Unilever's largest international competitors are Nestlé and Procter&Gamble.

GlaxoSmithKline

GlaxoSmithKline plc (GSK) is a British multinational pharmaceutical, biologics, vaccines and consumer healthcare company headquartered in London, United Kingdom. It is the world's fourth-largest pharmaceutical company measured by 2009 prescription drug sales (after Pfizer, Novartis, and Sanofi). It was established in 2000 by the merger of Glaxo Wellcome plc and SmithKline Beecham plc.

In 1880, Burroughs Wellcome & Company was founded in London by the American pharmacists Henry Wellcome and Silas Burroughs. Glaxo was founded in Bunnythorpe, New Zealand, in 1904. Originally Glaxo was a baby food manufacturer processing milk into a baby food of the same name: the product was sold under the slogan "Glaxo builds bonny babies" from 1908. Glaxo became Glaxo Laboratories, and opened new units in London in 1935. After the company bought Meyer Laboratories in 1978, it started to play an important role in the US market. Burroughs Wellcome and Glaxo merged in 1995 to form GlaxoWellcome. Three years later GlaxoWellcome bought Polfa Poznan Company in Poland.

In 1843, Thomas Beecham launched his Beecham's Pills laxative in England giving birth to the Beecham Group. By the 1960s, Beecham was extensively involved in pharmaceuticals.In 1830, John K. Smith opened its first pharmacy in Philadelphia. In 1865, Mahlon Kline joined the business which 10 years later became Smith, Kline & Co. In 1989 it merged with Beecham to form SmithKline Beecham plc. The headquarters of the company was moved to England. To expand research & development in the US, SmithKline Beecham bought a new research center in 1995.

Glaxo Wellcome and SmithKline Beecham merged on in December 2000, forming GlaxoSmithKline.

GSK has a portfolio of products for major disease areas including asthma, cancer, virus control, infections, mental health, diabetes and digestive conditions. It also has a large consumer healthcare division that produces and markets oral healthcare and nutritional products, drinks and over-the-counter medicines, including Sensodyne, Boost, Horlicks, Lucozade, Ribena and Gaviscon.

GSK has a primary listing on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index. As of 6 July 2012, it had a market capitalisation of £74.8 billion, the fifth-largest of any company listed on the London Stock Exchange. It has a secondary listing on the New York Stock Exchange.

GSK employs 97,000 people worldwide of whom about 12,500 work in research and development. Its global headquarters are GSK House in Brentford, United Kingdom, with its United States headquarters based in Research Triangle Park in North Carolina^[34] and its consumer products division based in the Pittsburgh suburb of Moon Township, Pennsylvania. The research and development division has major facilities in South East England, Philadelphia and Research Triangle Park in North Carolina. GSK has a presence in 99 cities across 39 countries.

GSK's single largest market is in the United States, which generates approximately 45 % of its revenues, although the company sells its products in around 70 countries.

British Airways

British Airways (BA) is the flag carrier airline of the United Kingdom, based in Waterside, near its main hub at London Heathrow Airport. It is the largest airline in the UK based on fleet size, international flights and international destinations and second largest measured by passengers carried, behind easyJet.

The British Airways Board was established in 1971 to control the two nationalised airline corporations, BOAC and BEA, and two smaller, regional airlines, Cambrian Airways, from Cardiff, and Northeast Airlines, from Newcastle upon Tyne. On 31 March 1974, all four companies were merged to form British Airways. After almost 13 years as a state company, that was sold in February 1987 as part of a privatisation plan by the Conservative Government. The carrier soon expanded with the acquisition of British Caledonian in 1987 and Dan-Air, Gatwick-based carrier, in 1992.

A long-time Boeing customer, British Airways ordered 59 Airbus A320 family aircraft in August 1998. In 2007, it purchased 12 Airbus A380s and 24 Boeing 787 Dreamliners, marking the start of its long-haul fleet replacement. The centrepiece of the airline's long-haul fleet is the Boeing 747-400; with 52 examples in service, British Airways is the largest operator of this type in the world.

British Airways is a founding member of the Oneworld airline alliance, along with American Airlines, Cathay Pacific, Qantas, and the now defunct Canadian Airlines. The alliance has since grown to become the third largest, after SkyTeam and Star Alliance. British Airways' parent company, International Airlines Group, is listed on the London Stock Exchange and in the FTSE 100 Index.

On 12 November 2009, British Airways confirmed that it had reached a preliminary agreement to merge with Iberia. On 14 July 2010, the European Commission approved the merger under competition law, also allowing American Airlines to co-operate with the merged entity on transatlantic routes to the United States. The merger was completed on 21 January 2011, formally creating the International Airlines Group, IAG, the world's third-largest airline in terms of annual revenue and the second largest airline group in Europe. In 2012, IAG purchased British Midland International (BMI) and announced plans to open a new subsidiary based at London City Airport operating Airbus A318s.

British Airways was the airline partner of the London 2012 Olympic Games. On 18 May 2012 it flew the Olympic flame from Athens International Airport to RNAS Culdrose while carrying various dignitaries including Lord Sebastian Coe, Princess Anne, Olympics minister Hugh Robertson and London Mayor Boris Johnson, together with footballer David Beckham.

AIRBUS

Airbus is the world’s leading aircraft manufacturer whose customer focus, commercial know-how, technological leadership and manufacturing efficiency have propelled it to the forefront of the industry.

Airbus’ modern and comprehensive product line comprises highly successful families of aircraft ranging from 107 to 525 seats: the single-aisle A320 Family, the wide-body long-range A330/A340 and the all-new next generation A350 XWB Family, and the ultra long-range, double-decker A380 Family. The company also continues to broaden its scope and product range by applying its expertise to the military market. It is as well extending its portfolio of freighter aircraft that will set new standards in the general and express freight market sectors.

Across all its fly-by-wire aircraft families Airbus’ unique approach ensures that aircraft share the highest possible degree of commonality in airframes, on-board systems, cockpits and handling characteristics, which reduces significantly operating costs for airlines.

Dedicated to helping airlines enhance the profitability of their fleets, Airbus also delivers a wide range of customer services in all areas of support, tailored to the needs of individual operators all over the world.

Headquartered in Toulouse, Airbus is owned by EADS, a global leader in aerospace, defence and related services. This group – which is comprised of Astrium, Cassidian and Eurocopter, in addition to Airbus – has a presence on every continent, and employs a total workforce of more than 119,000.

Airbus itself is a truly global enterprise of some 59,000 employees, with fully-owned subsidiaries in the United States, China, Japan and in the Middle East, spare parts centres in Hamburg, Frankfurt, Washington, Beijing and Singapore, training centres in Toulouse, Miami, Hamburg and Beijing and more than 150 field service offices around the world.

Airbus also relies on industrial co-operation and partnerships with major companies all over the world, and a network of some 1,500 suppliers in 30 countries.

Airbus today consistently captures about half of all commercial airliner orders.

BOEING IN BRIEF

Boeing is the world's largest aerospace company and leading manufacturer of commercial jetliners and defense, space and security systems. A top U.S. exporter, the company supports airlines and U.S. and allied government customers in 150 countries. Boeing products and tailored services include commercial and military aircraft, satellites, weapons, electronic and defense systems, launch systems, advanced information and communication systems, and performance-based logistics and training.

Boeing has a long tradition of aerospace leadership and innovation. The company continues to expand its product line and services to meet emerging customer needs. Its broad range of capabilities includes creating new, more efficient members of its commercial airplane family; integrating military platforms, defense systems and the warfighter through network-enabled solutions; creating advanced technology solutions; and arranging innovative customer-financing options.

With corporate offices in Chicago, Boeing employs more than 170,000 people across the United States and in 70 countries. This represents one of the most diverse, talented and innovative workforces anywhere. More than 140,000 employees hold college degrees -- including nearly 35,000 advanced degrees - in virtually every business and technical field from approximately 2,700 colleges and universities worldwide. Our enterprise also leverages the talents of hundreds of thousands more skilled people working for Boeing suppliers worldwide.

Boeing is organized into two business units: Boeing Commercial Airplanes and Boeing Defense, Space & Security. Supporting these units are Boeing Capital Corporation, a global provider of financing solutions; the Shared Services Group, which provides a broad range of services to Boeing worldwide; and Boeing Engineering, Operations & Technology, which helps develop, acquire, apply and protect innovative technologies and processes.

BOEING COMMERCIAL AIRPLANES

Boeing has been the premier manufacturer of commercial jetliners for more than 40 years. With the merger of Boeing and McDonnell Douglas in 1997, Boeing's leadership in commercial jets, joined with the lineage of Douglas airplanes, gives the combined company a 70-year heritage of leadership in commercial aviation. Today, the main commercial products are the 737, 747, 767 and 777 families of airplanes and the Boeing Business Jet. New product development efforts are focused on the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, and the 747-8. The company has nearly 12,000 commercial jetliners in service worldwide, which is roughly 75 percent of the world fleet. Through Boeing Commercial Aviation Services, the company provides unsurpassed, around-the-clock technical support to help operators maintain their airplanes in peak operating condition. Commercial Aviation Services offers a full range of world-class engineering, modification, logistics and information services to its global customer base, which includes the world's passenger and cargo airlines, as well as maintenance, repair and overhaul facilities. Boeing also trains maintenance and flight crews in the 100-seat-and-above airliner market through Boeing Training & Flight Services, the world's largest and most comprehensive provider of airline training.

Automotive industry in the United Kingdom

The automotive industry in the United Kingdom is now best known for premium and sports car marques including Aston Martin, Bentley, Daimler, Jaguar, Lagonda, Land Rover, Lotus, McLaren, MG, Mini, Morgan and Rolls-Royce. Volume car manufacturers with a major presence in the UK include Ford, Honda, Nissan, Toyota and Vauxhall Motors (owned by General Motors). Commercial vehicle manufacturers active in the UK include Alexander Dennis, Ford, GMM Luton (owned by General Motors), Leyland Trucks (owned by Paccar) and London Taxis International (owned by Geely).

In 2008 the UK automotive manufacturing sector had a turnover of £52.5 billion, generated £26.6 billion of exports and produced around 1.45 million passenger vehicles and 203,000 commercial vehicles. In that year around 180,000 people were directly employed in automotive manufacturing in the UK, with a further 640,000 people employed in automotive supply, retail and servicing.

The UK is a major centre for engine manufacturing and in 2008 around 3.16 million engines were produced in the country. The UK has a significant presence in auto racing and the UK motorsport industry currently employs around 38,500 people, comprises around 4,500 companies and has an annual turnover of around £6 billion.

The origins of the UK automotive industry date back to the final years of the 19th century. By the 1950s the UK was the second-largest manufacturer of cars in the world (after the United States) and the largest exporter. However in subsequent decades the industry experienced considerably lower growth than competitor nations such as France, Germany and Japan and by 2008 the UK was the 12th-largest producer of cars measured by volume. Since the late 1980s many British car marques have been acquired by foreign companies including BMW (Mini and Rolls-Royce), SAIC (MG), TATA (Jaguar and Land Rover) and Volkswagen Group (Bentley). Rights to many currently dormant brands, including Austin, Riley, Rover and Triumph, are also owned by foreign companies.

Famous and iconic British cars include the Aston Martin DB5, Aston Martin V8 Vantage, Bentley 4½ Litre, Jaguar E-Type, Land Rover Defender, Lotus Esprit, McLaren F1, MGB, original two-door Mini, Range Rover and Rolls-Royce Phantom III. Notable British car designers include John Polwhele Blatchley, Ian Callum, Colin Chapman, Alec Issigonis, Charles Spencer King and Gordon Murray.

AUTOMOBILE EMISSIONS

Transportation is a major contributor to air pollution in most industrialised nations. According to the American Surface Transportation Policy Project nearly half of all Americans are breathing unhealthy air. Their study showed air quality in dozens of metropolitan areas has worsened over the last decade. In the United States the average passenger car emits 11,450 pounds (5,190 kg) of the greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide annually, along with smaller amounts of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen.

Animals and plants are often negatively impacted by automobiles via habitat destruction and pollution. Over the lifetime of the average automobile the "loss of habitat potential" may be over 50,000 square meters (540,000 sq ft) based on primary production correlations. Animals are also killed every year on roads by automobiles.

Growth in the popularity of vehicles and commuting has led to traffic congestion. Brussels is considered Europe's most congested city.

Fuel taxes may act as an incentive for the production of more efficient, hence less polluting, car designs (e.g. hybrid vehicles) and the development of alternative fuels. High fuel taxes may provide a strong incentive for consumers to purchase lighter, smaller, more fuel-efficient cars, or to not drive. On average, today's automobiles are about 75 percent recyclable, and using recycled steel helps reduce energy use and pollution. In the United States Congress, federally mandated fuel efficiency standards have been debated regularly, passenger car standards have not risen above the 27.5 miles per US gallon (8.55 L/100 km; 33.0 mpg_-imp) standard set in 1985. Light truck standards have changed more frequently, and were set at 22.2 miles per US gallon (10.6 L/100 km; 26.7 mpg_-imp) in 2007.

Oil consumption in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries has been abundantly pushed by automobile growth; the 1985–2003 oil glut even fuelled the sales of low economy vehicles in OECD countries. The BRIC countries might also kick in, as China briefly was the first automobile market in December 2009.

Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology (sometimes shortened to "nanotech") is the manipulation of matter on an atomic and molecular scale. The earliest, widespread description of nanotechnology referred to the particular technological goal of precisely manipulating atoms and molecules for fabrication of macroscale products, also now referred to as molecular nanotechnology. A more generalized description of nanotechnology was subsequently established by the National Nanotechnology Initiative, which defines nanotechnology as the manipulation of matter with at least one dimension sized from 1 to 100 nanometers. This definition reflects the fact that quantum mechanical effects are important at this quantum-realm scale, and so the definition shifted from a particular technological goal to a research category inclusive of all types of research and technologies that deal with the special properties of matter that occur below the given size threshold. It is therefore common to see the plural form "nanotechnologies" as well as "nanoscale technologies" to refer to the broad range of research and applications whose common trait is size. Because of the variety of potential applications (including industrial and military), governments have invested billions of dollars in nanotechnology research. Through its National Nanotechnology Initiative, the USA has invested 3.7 billion dollars. The European Union has invested 1.2 billion and Japan 750 million dollars.

Nanotechnology as defined by size is naturally very broad, including fields of science as diverse as surface science, organic chemistry, molecular biology, semiconductor physics, microfabrication, etc. The associated research and applications are equally diverse, ranging from extensions of conventional device physics to completely new approaches based upon molecular self-assembly, from developing new materials with dimensions on the nanoscale to direct control of matter on the atomic scale.

Scientists currently debate the future implications of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology may be able to create many new materials and devices with a vast range of applications, such as in medicine, electronics, biomaterials and energy production. On the other hand, nanotechnology raises many of the same issues as any new technology, including concerns about the toxicity and environmental impact of nanomaterials, and their potential effects on global economics, as well as speculation about various doomsday scenarios. These concerns have led to a debate among advocacy groups and governments on whether special regulation of nanotechnology is warranted.

NANOTECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS

As of August 21, 2008, the Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies estimates that over 800 manufacturer-identified nanotech products are publicly available, with new ones hitting the market at a pace of 3–4 per week. The project lists all of the products in a publicly accessible online database. Most applications are limited to the use of "first generation" passive nanomaterials which includes titanium dioxide in sunscreen, cosmetics, surface coatings, and some food products; Carbon allotropes used to produce gecko tape; silver in food packaging, clothing, disinfectants and household appliances; zinc oxide in sunscreens and cosmetics, surface coatings, paints and outdoor furniture varnishes; and cerium oxide as a fuel catalyst.

Further applications allow tennis balls to last longer, golf balls to fly straighter, and even bowling balls to become more durable and have a harder surface. Trousers and socks have been infused with nanotechnology so that they will last longer and keep people cool in the summer. Bandages are being infused with silver nanoparticles to heal cuts faster. Cars are being manufactured with nanomaterials so they may need fewer metals and less fuel to operate in the future. Video game consoles and personal computers may become cheaper, faster, and contain more memory thanks to nanotechnology. Nanotechnology may have the ability to make existing medical applications cheaper and easier to use in places like the general practitioner's office and at home.

The National Science Foundation (a major distributor for nanotechnology research in the United States) funded researcher David Berube to study the field of nanotechnology. His findings are published in the monograph Nano-Hype: The Truth Behind the Nanotechnology Buzz. This study concludes that much of what is sold as “nanotechnology” is in fact a recasting of straightforward materials science, which is leading to a “nanotech industry built solely on selling nanotubes, nanowires, and the like” which will “end up with a few suppliers selling low margin products in huge volumes." Further applications which require actual manipulation or arrangement of nanoscale components await further research. Though technologies branded with the term 'nano' are sometimes little related to and fall far short of the most ambitious and transformative technological goals of the sort in molecular manufacturing proposals, the term still connotes such ideas. According to Berube, there may be a danger that a "nano bubble" will form, or is forming already, from the use of the term by scientists and entrepreneurs to garner funding, regardless of interest in the transformative possibilities of more ambitious and far-sighted work.

OUTSOURCING

Outsourcing is contracting with another company or person to do a particular function. Almost every organization outsources in some way. Typically, the function being outsourced is considered non-core to the business. An insurance company, for example, might outsource its janitorial and landscaping operations to firms that specialize in those types of work since they are not related to insurance or strategic to the business. The outside firms that are providing the outsourcing services are third-party providers, or as they are more commonly called, service providers.

Although outsourcing has been around as long as work specialization has existed, in recent history, companies began employing the outsourcing model to carry out narrow functions, such as payroll, billing and data entry. Those processes could be done more efficiently, and therefore more cost-effectively, by other companies with specialized tools and facilities and specially trained personnel.

Currently, outsourcing takes many forms. Organizations still hire service providers to handle distinct business processes, such as benefits management. But some organizations outsource whole operations. The most common forms are information technology outsourcing (ITO) and business process outsourcing (BPO).

Business process outsourcing encompasses call center outsourcing, human resources outsourcing (HRO), finance and accounting outsourcing, and claims processing outsourcing. These outsourcing deals involve multi-year contracts that can run into hundreds of millions of dollars. Frequently, the people performing the work internally for the client firm are transferred and become employees for the service provider. Dominant outsourcing service providers in the information technology outsourcing and business process outsourcing fields include IBM, EDS, CSC, HP, ACS, Accenture and Capgemini.

Some nimble companies that are short on time and money, such as start-up software publishers, apply multisourcing -- using both internal and service provider staff -- in order to speed up the time to launch. They hire a multitude of outsourcing service providers to handle almost all aspects of a new project, from product design, to software coding, to testing, to localization, and even to marketing and sales.

The process of outsourcing generally encompasses four stages: 1) strategic thinking, to develop the organization's philosophy about the role of outsourcing in its activities; 2) evaluation and selection, to decide on the appropriate outsourcing projects and potential locations for the work to be done and service providers to do it; 3) contract development, to work out the legal, pricing and service level agreement (SLA) terms; and 4) outsourcing management or governance, to refine the ongoing working relationship between the client and outsourcing service providers.

In all cases, outsourcing success depends on three factors: executive-level support in the client organization for the outsourcing mission; ample communication to affected employees; and the client's ability to manage its service providers. The outsourcing professionals in charge of the work on both the client and provider sides need a combination of skills in such areas as negotiation, communication, project management, the ability to understand the terms and conditions of the contracts and service level agreements (SLAs), and, above all, the willingness to be flexible as business needs change.

The challenges of outsourcing become especially acute when the work is being done in a different country (offshored), since that involves language, cultural and time zone differences.

FRANCHISING

Franchising is a business model in which many different owners share a single brand name. A parent company allows entrepreneurs to use the company's strategies and trademarks; in exchange, the franchisee pays an initial fee and royalties based on revenues. The parent company also provides the franchisee with support, including advertising and training, as part of the franchising agreement.

Franchising is a faster, cheaper form of expansion than adding company-owned stores, because it costs the parent company much less when new stores are owned and operated by a third party. On the flip side, potential for revenue growth is more limited because the parent company will only earn a percentage of the earnings from each new store. 70 different industries use the franchising business model, and according to the International Franchising Association the sector earns more than $1.5 trillion in revenues each year.

The franchising business model is used across many industries, but it is most popular in the fast food restaurants, hotel, and casual & upscale restaurants industries. According to an International Franchise Association study, franchisee-owned locations accounted for 56.3 %, 18.2 %, and 13.1 % of each respective industry's total locations in 2001.

McDonald's (MCD) operates the world's largest fast food chain, and earns 37 % of its revenue from franchising across its approximate 31,400 restaurant locations. Franchisees operate 65 % of McDonald's restaurants worldwide.

The franchising business model consists of two operating partners: the franchisor, or parent company, and the franchisee, the proprietor that operates one or multiple store locations. Franchising agreements usually require the franchisee to pay an initial fee plus royalties equal to a certain percentage of the store's monthly or yearly sales. Initial fees vary significantly across each industry, ranging from $35,000 for an Applebee's restaurant to over $85,000 to open a Hilton hotel. Royalty fees are also variable - for example, Intercontinental Hotels Group (IHG) franchisees are required to pay the company 5 % of their yearly sales, while Applebee's franchisees pay 4 % of monthly sales and IHOP franchisees pay a 4.5 % royalty fee of weekly sales. The franchisee also covers the costs of actually starting and operating the store, including legal fees, occupancy or construction costs, inventory costs, and labor. Franchise agreements usually have a term of between 10 and 20 years, depending on the company.

The parent company authorizes the franchisee's use of the company's trademarks (for example, selling Big Mac's at McDonald's) as part of the franchising agreement. Additionally, the franchisor provides training and support as well as regional and/or national advertising.

Franchisees require less initial capital than independently starting a company and can use proven successful strategies and trademarks. Franchisees are provided with significant amounts of training, not common to most entrepreneurs. The franchisor benefits because it can expand rapidly without having to increase its labor force and operating costs, using much less capital.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Sustainable development has been defined in many ways, but the most frequently quoted definition is from Our Common Future, also known as the Brundtland Report:

"Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within it two key concepts:

• the concept of needs, in particular the essential needs of the world's poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and

• the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment's ability to meet present and future needs."

All definitions of sustainable development require that we see the world as a system—a system that connects space; and a system that connects time.

When you think of the world as a system over space, you grow to understand that air pollution from North America affects air quality in Asia, and that pesticides sprayed in Argentina could harm fish stocks off the coast of Australia.

And when you think of the world as a system over time, you start to realize that the decisions our grandparents made about how to farm the land continue to affect agricultural practice today; and the economic policies we endorse today will have an impact on urban poverty when our children are adults.

We also understand that quality of life is a system, too. It's good to be physically healthy, but what if you are poor and don't have access to education? It's good to have a secure income, but what if the air in your part of the world is unclean? And it's good to have freedom of religious expression, but what if you can't feed your family?

The concept of sustainable development is rooted in this sort of systems thinking. It helps us understand ourselves and our world. The problems we face are complex and serious—and we can't address them in the same way we created them. But we can address them.

Organic food

Organic foods are foods that are produced using methods of organic farming - that do not involve modern synthetic inputs such as synthetic pesticides and chemical fertilizers. Organic foods are also not processed using irradiation, industrial solvents, or chemical food additives. The organic farming movement arose in the 1940s in response to the industrialization of agriculture known as the Green Revolution. Organic food production is a heavily regulated industry, distinct from private gardening. Currently, the European Union, the United States, Canada, Japan and many other countries require producers to obtain special certification in order to market food as organic within their borders. In the context of these regulations, organic food is food produced in a way that complies with organic standards set by national governments and international organizations.

Evidence on substantial differences between organic food and conventional food is insufficient to make claims that organic food is safer or more healthy than conventional food. With respect to taste, the evidence is also insufficient to make scientific claims that organic food tastes better. Many supporters of the organic foods movement believe that pesticides, herbicides and artificial additives found in non-organic food might be carcinogenic. The American Cancer Society has said "whether organic foods carry a lower risk of cancer because they are less likely to be contaminated by compounds that might cause cancer is largely unknown" but "vegetables, fruits, and whole grains should form the central part of a person's diet, regardless of whether they are grown conventionally or organically".

Demand for organic foods is primarily concern for personal health and concern for the environment. Organic products typically cost 10 to 40 % more than similar conventionally produced products. According to the USDA, Americans, on average, spent $1,347 on groceries in 2004; thus switching entirely to organics would raise their cost of groceries by about $135 to $539 per year ($11 to $45 per month) assuming that prices remained stable with increased demand. Processed organic foods vary in price when compared to their conventional counterparts.

While organic food accounts for 1–2 % of total food sales worldwide, the organic food market is growing rapidly, far ahead of the rest of the food industry, in both developed and developing nations. World organic food sales jumped from US $23 billion in 2002 to $52 billion in 2008. The world organic market has been growing by 20 % a year since the early 1990s, with future growth estimates ranging from 10–50 % annually depending on the country

CONSUMERISM

As long as business has existed - since the ancient beginnings of commerce and trade-consumers have tried to protect their interests when they go to the marketplace to buy goods and services. They have haggled over prices, taken a careful look at the goods they are buying, compared the quality and prices of products offered by other sellers, and complained loudly when they feel cheated by shoddy products. So, consumer self-reliance has always been one form of consumer protection. The Latin phrase caveat emptor - meaning 'let the buyer beware' - has put consumers on the alert to look after their own interest. This form of individual self-reliance is still very much in existence today.

However, the increasing complexity of economic life in the20th century, especially in the more advanced industrial nations, has led to organized, collective efforts to safeguard consumers. These organized activities are usually called consumerism or the consumer movement.

At the heart of consumerism in the United States is the attempt to expand the rights and powers of consumers. The goal of the movement is to make consumer power an effective counterbalance to the rights and powers of business firms that sell goods and services.

Within an advanced, industrialized, free enterprise nation, business firms tend to grow to a very large size. They acquire much power and influence. Frequently, they can dictate prices. Typically, their advertisements sway consumers to buy one product or service rather than another. If large enough, they may share the market with only a few equally large competitors, thereby weakening some of the competitive protections enjoyed by consumers where business firms are smaller and more numerous. The economic influence and power of business firms may therefore become a problem for consumers unless ways can be found to promote an equal amount of consumer power. Most consumers would feel well-protected if their fundamental right to fair play in the marketplace could be guaranteed. In the early 1960s when the consumer movement in the United States was in its early stages, President John F. Kennedy told Congress that consumers were entitled to four different kinds of protection: 1. The right to safety: to be protected against the marketing of goods which are hazardous to health or life.

2. The right to be informed: to be protected against fraudulent, deceitful, or grossly misleading information, advertising, labeling, or other practices, and to be given the facts to make an informed choice.

3. The right to choose: to be assured, wherever possible, access to a variety of products and services at competitive prices and in those industries in which competition is not workable and government regulation is substituted, to be assured satisfactory quality and service at fair prices.

4. The right to be heard: to be assured that consumer interests will receive full and sympathetic consideration in the formulation of government policy, and fair and expeditious treatment in its administrative tribunals.

The consumer bill of rights, as it was called, became the guiding philosophy of the consumer movement. If those rights could be guaranteed, consumers would feel more confident in dealing with well-organized and influential corporation in the marketplace

RUNNING A BUSINESS

Certain very large companies are registered as public limited companies (PLC). They raise capital by selling shares to the general public, and these shares are listed on the Stock Exchange.

Selling shares is one of the ways in which companies raise capital; A share is ownership of a proportion of the company, and thus the right to a proportion of any profit it makes (dividend). Shareholders cannot insist on the payment of a dividend every year since this is up to the directors to decide. But if they are dissatisfied with the management of the company as members they have the right to remove the directors. The more shares a member holds, the more voting rights he will have in general meetings. Shares may be acquired when the company is first set up; or at a later share issue. Or they may be bought or received from an existing shareholder. Sometimes a company gives existing members the right to buy shares from another member before he is allowed to sell them to a new member. Each share is equal in value. But that value may be greater or less than the nominal value. For example, a member of a successful company who bought shares at S10 each may be able to sell them at a premium -perhaps $12 each. But he may also find that he has to sell them for less than their nominal value - at a discount.

Another way for a company to raise capital is by issuing debentures, or bonds in return for loans. Debenture holders are entitled to an annual payment of interest, and it is not linked to the company's profits and losses. In general they have the right to sell their debentures back to the company or sell them on to someone else. If possible, the lender will make sure his loan is secured by a charge over a company asset, so that he will have the right to take company property should there be no money to repay him.

A limited liability company is not the only way to run a business. A single person may operate as a sole trader, and even if he employs many people, he alone is responsible for management and, thus, for any debts. Another way to run a business is for two or more people to form a partnership in which they share management, profits and liability to debts. The share is not necessarily an equal one, but depends upon a partnership agreement among them. This usually reflects the amount of capital each partner has invested in the business. Partnerships can be formed very easily and the legal position of partners is not very different from that of sole traders. Unlike members of a company partners may find their personal property is at risk if they are sued by creditors. It is also possible to form an unlimited company. Since member's liability is unlimited this is, in effect, similar to a partnership.

If the advantage of forming a company is that is offers members some protection in case of bankruptcy, the disadvantage is that there are many regulations to observe in setting it up and running it. Under English law, there must be a minimum of two people and they must sign a document called a memorandum of association. The memorandum contains the name of the company, its objects, whether it is limited by shares or guarantee and the amount of share capital.

There are some restrictions on the choice of name: for example, the register will not accept a name that is the same or very similar to a company already registered, since this could confuse consumers and clients.

INTERNATIONAL MARKETING

The simplest way to enter a foreign market is through exporting. The company may passively export its surpluses, or may take commitment to expand exports to a particular market. In either case the company produces all its goods in the home country though it may make changes to them for the export market. There are two types of exporting: indirect and direct. Indirect exporting means working through the independent middlemen such as agents and dealers. Indirect exporting can be done with little investment and therefore involves less risk. Mistakes can be made but they should not be too costly.

Direct exporting involves setting up an export department or even a overseas sales branch which actively uses the company's own employees. This will give the seller more presence and control in the market but obviously means heavier investment.

A second method of entering a foreign market is through the joint ventures with foreign companies. There are four types of joint venture.

Licensing is the simplest way for a manufacturer to produce its goods in the foreign market. The company enters into an agreement with a licensee offering the right to use a manufacturing process, trademark, patent or other item of value for a fee or royalty. Once again the company gains entry into the market at little risk but there are potential disadvantages. The company has less control over the licensee than if it had set up its own production facilities. If the licensee is very successful, the company has given up the potential for larger profits and, if and when the contract ends, it may find it has created a competitor.

Another option is contract manufacturing. This means contracting with foreign manufacturers to produce the product. It has the drawback of less control over the manufacturing process and the loss of potential profits on manufacturing. On the other hand it offers the company a chance to get off to a quicker start and take on less risk. There is also an opportunity to form a partnership or buy out the local manufacturer later.

Joint ownership ventures consist of the company joining with foreign investors to create a local business in which they share joint ownership and control. Joint ownership may make sense for political and economic reasons. Sometimes foreign governments make joint ownership a condition for entry. It also has certain drawbacks. Above all, there is the danger of disagreement over crucial issues such as investment and marketing. One firm may want to put money back into the company while the other wants to take it out.

Besides exporting and joint ventures there is also a possibility of direct investment -in other words developing foreign-based assembly or manufacturing facilities. If the foreign market is large enough, local production facilities offer many advantages. The company may have lower costs in the form of cheaper labor, raw materials and transport/distribution. The company will gain a better image in the host country because it creates jobs. It also develops a deeper relationship with government, customers, suppliers and distributors. Finally, by direct investment, the company keeps full control over investment and marketing policies. The main disadvantage is that the firm faces many risks such as devalued currencies, declining markets or even government takeover.

THE WORLD'S CHAMPION MARKETERS: THE JAPANESE?

Few dispute that the Japanese have performed an economic miracle since World War II. In a very short time, they have achieved global market leadership in many industries: cars, motorcycles, watches, cameras, optical instruments, steel, shipbuilding, computers and consumer electronics. They are now making strong inroads into rubber tyres chemicals, machine tools and even designer clothes and cosmetics. Some credit global success of Japanese companies to their unique business and management practices. Others point to the help they get from Japanese government, powerful trading companies and banks. Still others say Japan's success is based on low wage rates and unfair dumping policies.

But one of the main keys to the Japan's success in its skilful use of marketing. They know how to select a market, enter it in the right way, build market share, and protect their share against competitors.

Selecting markets

The Japanese work hard to identify attractive global markets. They look for industries that require high skills and high labour intensity but few natural resources. These include consumer electronics, cameras, and pharmaceuticals. They like markets where consumers around the world would be willing to buy the same product design. They look for industries where the market leaders are weak or complacent

Entering markets

Japanese study teams spend several months evaluating the target market, searching for market niches that are not being satisfied. Sometimes they start with a low-price, stripped-down version of a product, sometimes with a product which is as good as the competition's but priced lower, sometimes with a product with higher quality or new features. The Japanese line up good distribution in order to provide quick service to their customers. They use advertising to bring their products to the customer's attention. Their entry strategy is to build market share rather than early profits. The Japanese are often willing to wait even a decade before realising their profits.

Building market share

Once Japanese firms gain a market foothold, they begin to expand their market share. They pour money into product improvements and new models so that they can offer more and better things than the competition. They spot new opportunities through market segmentation, develop markets in new countries, and work to build a network of world markets and production locations.

Protecting market share

Once the Japanese achieve market leadership they become defenders rather than attackers. Their defense strategy is to continue product development and refine market segmentation.

MULTINATIONALS

The term 'multinational' is used for a company which has subsidiaries or sales facilities throughout the world. Another expression for this type of business enterprise is 'global corporation'. Many of these giant organisations are household names such as Coca Cola, Heinz, Sony, Hitachi, IBM, and General Motors. Companies like these control vast sums of money and they operate in countries with widely differing political and economic systems.

Looking back into history, we can find two main reasons for the development of multinationals. Firstly, when companies found that their national markets had become saturated, they realized that they could only increase profits by setting up subsidiaries abroad. Secondly, if a country set up trade barriers - usually tariffs or quotas - against a company's products, then the only alternative for the company was to establish a factory or sales organization in the country concerned.

In earlier times most countries gave the multinationals a 'red carpet' welcome because they saw such foreign investment as creating much-needed employment, stimulating the business sector generally, and possibly earning foreign currency if the company's products were exported. More recently, however, the tide has turned against the multinationals. They are now viewed by many with suspicion; once heroes, they are now villains on the international business stage.

Tension between host country and multinational is inevitable in many cases because multinationals do pose a threat to national sovereignty.

The multinational is big and rich. It often operates in industries which are difficult to enter and of vital national importance, e.g. the computer, chemical and automobile industries. Most important of all, the main objective of the multinational is to organize its activities around the world so as to maximize global profits and global market shares. Each subsidiary is part of an international network of affiliates. These all interact with each other. Each part serves the whole. The centre controlling the network - the multinationals' headquarters - is not under the control of the host government. It is frequently thousands of miles away from these subsidiaries.

To illustrate this principle of interaction between affiliates, we can take the example of the Canadian company Massey Ferguson. It can make tractors in the USA for sale in Canada that contain British engines, French transmissions, and Mexican axles: all products of the company's subsidiaries. IBM is another company which is transnational in scope. A typical 360 - series computer may include components from four or five countries.

Developing countries, in particular, have become concerned about their dependence on foreign investment in key sectors of their economy. They have become aware that foreign subsidiaries often take most of their profits out of the country rather than reinvest them in the company. Sometimes, the flow of funds causes disastrous fluctuations in the exchange rates of their currencies.

Arguing against multinationals critics try to shrill tones that these organizations engaged in an anti-competitive activities insensitively shut down plants, make huge bribes to gain contracts, interfere politically, destabilize currencies, underpay their workers and so on. Those speaking for the defense see these corporations almost as international agencies promoting peace, providing better, cheaper products, and bringing much needed resources, expertise and employment to the host countries.