Part 2. Mapping and Surveying

1. Read and translate texts 1-4 about the history of mapmaking. While reading use the proper word:

Text 1 Cartography in the Ancient World and Middle Ages

Centuries before the Christian Era, Babylonians drew maps on (sand, clay, paper) tablets, of which the oldest specimens found so far have been dated about 2300 BCE. This is the earliest evidence of graphic (representations, measurements, fields) of parts of the Earth. Certain land drawings found in Egypt and paintings discovered in early tombs are nearly as old.

The Greeks were outstanding among peoples of the ancient world for their pursuit and development of geographic (area, importance, knowledge). The shortage of (arable, big, poor) land in their own region led to maritime exploration and the development of commerce and colonies. By the mid-4^th century the theory of a spherical (Sun, Earth, Venus) was accepted among Greek scholars, and about 350 BC Aristotle formulated six arguments to (prove, divide, calculate) that the Earth was a (cube, triangle, sphere).

The greatest figure of the ancient world in the advancement of geography and cartography was Claudius Ptolemaeus or Ptolemy (AD 90 – 168). An astronomer and mathematician, he spent many years studying at the library in Alexandria. His monumental work, the Guide to Geography, was produced in eight volumes. The first volume discussed basic principles and dealt with map projection and (house, globe, town) construction. The next six volumes carried a list of the names of some 8,000 places and their approximate latitudes and longitudes. The eighth volume was the most important contribution, containing instructions for preparing maps of the world and other fundamental principles of (cartography, map, philosophy). Ptolemy’s map of the world marked the culmination of Greek cartography. One fundamental error that had far-reaching effects was attributed to Ptolemy – an underestimation of the (shape, size, volume) of the Earth.

Ptolemy’s map of the world

He showed Europe and Asia as extending over half the globe, instead of the 130 degrees of their true extent. Similarly, the span of the Mediterranean was proved to be 20 degrees less than Ptolemy’s estimate.

The main difference between the Greek and Roman cartography was indicated by their maps. The Romans were less (interested, used, defined) in mathematical geography and tended toward more practical needs for military (companies, teams, campaigns) and provincial administration. They reverted to the older concepts of a disc-shaped world for maps of great areas because they met their needs and were easier to read and understand.

Progress in mapmaking during the Middle Ages was slight. The medieval mapmaker was dominated by the church, reflecting in his work dogmas and interpretations of Scripture.

During the Europe’s dark Ages Arab and Chinese cartography made progress. The Arabs translated Ptolemy’s treatises and carried on his traditions. In Baghdad astronomers used the compass long before Europeans. The oldest known Chinese map is dated about 1137.