Text 2 Cartography in the Age of Discovery and Exploration

Progress in other technologies such as navigation, ship design and construction, instruments for observation and astronomy, and general use of the compass tended to improve existing map information. The great discoveries of Columbus, da Gama, Vespucci, Cabot, Magellan, and others gradually (transformed, bought, increased) the world maps of those days.

The most important aspect of the postmedieval maps was their increasing (definition, stability, accuracy).

The principal centers of cartographic (land, activity, map) were Spain, Portugal, the Netherlands and Switzerland. England and France with their growing colonial power were soon to become primary map centers.

Text 3 Cartography of the 18th Century

Reformation in mapmaking at that time was characterized by (scientific, agricultural, military) trends and more accurate detail. Monsters, lions, and swash lines disappeared and were replaced by more actual content.

The new cartography was also based on better instruments, such as the telescope and the chronometer.

Many countries of Europe began to undertake the systematic topographic mapping for their territories. Such surveys required facilities and capabilities far beyond the means of private cartographers. Military, national survey organizations gradually became civilian. The Ordnance Survey of Britain, the Institut Geographique National of France, and the Landestopographie of Switzerland are examples.

Progress in mapping stimulated the English to start a national (survey, chart, cartography) which was completed in 1787.

Text 4 Modern Cartography

The instrumentation, procedures, and standards involved in making surveys have improved remarkably in recent years. Geodetic, topographic, hydrographic, and cadastral surveys have been facilitated by the application of electronics and (soil, social, computer) sciences. At the same time, superior optics and more refined instruments have enhanced the precision of observations and accuracies of the end product.

2. Make up 5 questions to the topic “History of Mapmaking – from the Ancient World to the Modern Cartography”

3. Work in small groups and ask each other these questions. Use in your questions and answers conversational formulas for expression of request, possible positive or negative replies, agreement and disagreement given below.

request	replies	agreement	disagreement
Would you answer my question?	Sure. Naturally.	I fully agree. Settled!	I differ from you. I object to it!
Be good enough to …	Not at all! Not in the least!	I’m of the same opinion.	You are mistaken. I’m against it!
Could you possibly …, please.	With pleasure!	Right you are! All right!	Far from it! Not at all!
Be so kind as to …	You can count on me.	Exactly so! Just it!	Certainly not! Surely not!
May I ask you to …	You can rely on me.	Highly probable.	Impossible!
Would you mind answering my question?	By all means!	Naturally! Definitely! Precisely!	Nothing of the kind. On the contrary!
I’ll thank you if you …	No trouble at all!	Fantastic! Fabulous!	Nonsense! Rubbish!
Could you do me a favour?	I’m afraid I can’t.	I won’t deny. Looks like that.	There’s something in what you say, but…
Would you kindly …	I’d rather not.	I suppose so.	You are wrong.
Could I trouble you for …	Willingly!	Good for you!	I disagree with you on that point.