29. Loan words (borrowed words) in English and their role in the formation of and development of the English vocabulary.

A loanword (or loan word) is a word borrowed from a donor language and incorporated into a recipient language. By contrast, a calque or loan translation is a related concept where the meaning or idiom is borrowed rather than the lexical item itself. The word loanword is itself a calque of the German Lehnwort, while calque is a loanword from French. The terms borrow and loanword, although traditional, conflict with the ordinary meaning of those words because nothing is returned to the donor languages. However, note that this metaphor is not isolated to the concept of loanwords, but also found in the idiom "to borrow an idea." An additional issue with the term loanword is that it implies that the loaning is limited to one single word as opposed to phrases such as déjà vu, an English loanword from French. While this phrase may be used as one lexical item by English speakers, that is to say, an English speaker would not say only déjà to convey the meaning associated with the full term déjà vu, in the donor language (French), speakers would be aware of the phrase consisting of two words. For simplicity, adopt/adoption or adapt/adaption are used by many linguists, either in parallel to, or in preference to, these words. Some researchers also use the term lexical borrowing.

Other examples of words borrowed by English

from Hindi jungle dacoit loot juggernaut syce/sais dinghy

from Afrikaans trek aardvark wildebeest veld

from Malay orangutan shirang amok

30. Borrowings. Types of assimilation of borrowings.

"One language may possess words for which there are no equivalents in the other language. There may be words for objects, social, political, and cultural institutions and events or abstract concepts which are not found in the culture of the other language. We can take some examples from the English language throughout the ages. English has borrowed words for types of houses (e.g. castle, mansion, teepee, wigwam, igloo, bungalow). It has borrowed words for cultural institutions (e.g. opera, ballet). It has borrowed words for political concepts (e.g. perestroika, glasnost, apartheid). It often happens that one culture borrows from the language of another culture words or phrases to express technological, social or cultural innovations."

Assimilation – is the process of adapting of the borrowed word to grammatical,

phonetic, graphic and semantic properties of the language which accept these words.

Types of assimilation

1. Completely assimilated loan words

2. Partially assimilated loan words

3. Non-assimilated loan words (barbarisms)

1. Completely assimilated loan words (when a word is assimilated completely into another language it means that it has adapted itself graphically, phonetically, semantically, grammatically) nation, face, pen, husband, ball, want, take, die, roof.

-The French suffix –age,-ance and –ment and the English modification of French –esse and –fier which provide speech material to produce hybrids (shortage, goddess, speechify)

-Free forms are readily combined with native suffixes. (painful, painless, painfully)

2. Partially assimilated loan words

a. loan words not completely assimilated graphically (taxi, ballet, cafe)

b. loan words not completely assimilated phonetically (Machine, cartoon, prestige) (borrowed)

c. loan words not completely assimilated grammatically (crisis-crises; phenomenon- phenomena; formula-formulae; index-indices)

d. loan words not completely assimilated semantically (the words denoting objects or phenomenon which is foreign to the English language and the English style life) (pilav; sambreror, rajah, rouble)

3. Non-assimilated loan words (barbarisms) (they have not been assimilated at all so foreign words haven’t enter the word-stock of English and are used for some specific purposes)

31. International words. Semantic spheres to which international words belong.

It is often the case that a word is borrowed by several languages, and not just by one. Such words usually convey concepts which are significant in the field of communication.

Many of them are of Latin and Greek origin. Most names of sciences are international, e. g. philosophy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, linguistics, lexicology. There are also numerous terms of art in this group: music, theatre, drama, tragedy, comedy, artist, primadonna.

It is quite natural that political terms frequently occur in the international group of borrowings: politics, policy, revolution, progress, democracy, communism, anti-militarism.

20th c. scientific and technological advances brought a great number of new international words: atomic, antibiotic, radio, television, sputnik. The latter is a Russian borrowing, and it became an international word (meaning a man-made satellite) in 1961, immediately after the first space flight by Yury Gagarin.

The English language also contributed a considerable number of international words to world languages. Among them the sports terms occupy a prominent position: football, volley-ball, baseball, hockey, cricket, rugby, tennis, golf, etc.

Fruits and foodstuffs imported from exotic countries often transport their names too and, being simultaneously imported to many countries, become international: coffee, cocoa, chocolate, coca-cola, banana, mango, avocado, grapefruit.

It is important to note that international words are mainly borrowings. The outward similarity of such Words as the E. son, the Germ. Sohn and the R. сын should not lead one to the quite false conclusion that they are international words. They represent the Indo-European group of the native element in each respective language and are cognates, i. e. words of the same etymological root, and not borrowings.

32. Classification of phraseological units: semantic, structural, syntactical.

SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS

Phraseological units can be classified according to the degree of motivation of their meaning. This classification was suggested by acad. V.V. Vinogradov for Russian phraseological units. He pointed out three types of phraseological units:

a) fusions where the degree of motivation is very low, we cannot guess the meaning of the whole from the meanings of its components, they are highly idiomatic and cannot be translated word for word into other languages, e.g. on Shank’s mare - (on foot), at sixes and sevens - (in a mess) etc;

b) unities where the meaning of the whole can be guessed from the meanings of its components, but it is transferred (metaphorical or metonymical), e.g. to play the first fiddle ( to be a leader in something), old salt (experienced sailor) etc;

c) collocations where words are combined in their original meaning but their combinations are different in different languages, e.g. cash and carry - (self-service shop), in a big way (in great degree) etc.

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS

Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky worked out structural class ification of phraseological units, comparing them with words. He points out one-top units which he compares with derived words because derived words have only one root morpheme. He points out two-top units which he compares with compound words because in compound words we usually have two root morphemes.

Among one-top units he points out three structural types;

a) units of the type «to give up» (verb + postposition type), e.g. to art up, to back up, to drop out, to nose out, to buy into, to sandwich in etc.;

b) units of the type «to be tired» . Some of these units remind the Passive Voice in their structure but they have different prepositons with them, while in the Passive Voice we can have only prepositions «by» or «with», e.g. to be tired of, to be interested in, to be surprised at etc. There are also units in this type which remind free word-groups of the type «to be young», e.g. to be akin to, to be aware of etc. The difference between them is that the adjective «young» can be used as an attribute and as a predicative in a sentence, while the nominal component in such units can act only as a predicative. In these units the verb is the grammar centre and the second component is the semantic centre;

c) prepositional- nominal phraseological units. These units are equivalents of unchangeable words: prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs , that is why they have no grammar centre, their semantic centre is the nominal part, e.g. on the doo rstep (quite near), on the nose (exactly), in the course of, on the stroke of, in time, on the point of etc. In the course of time such units can become words, e.g. tomorrow, instead etc.

Phraseological units the same as compound words can have more than two tops (stems in compound words), e.g. to take a back seat, a peg to hang a thing on, lock, stock and barrel, to be a shaddow of one’s own self, at one’s own sweet will.

SYNTACTICAL CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS

Phraseological units can be clasified as parts of speech. This classification was suggested by I.V. Arnold. Here we have the following groups:

a) noun phraseologisms denoting an object, a person, a living being, e.g. bullet train, latchkey child, redbrick university, Green Berets,

b) verb phraseologisms denoting an action, a state, a feeling, e.g. to break the log-jam, to get on somebody’s coattails, to be on the beam, to nose out , to make headlines,

c) adjective phraseologisms denoting a quality, e.g. loose as a goose, dull as lead ,

d) adverb phraseological units, such as : with a bump, in the soup, like a dream , like a dog with two tails,

e) preposition phraseological units, e.g. in the course of, on the stroke of ,

f) interjection phraseological units, e.g. «Catch me!», «Well, I never!» etc.

In I.V.Arnold’s classification there are also sentence equivalents, proverbs, sayings and quatations, e.g. «The sky is the limit», «What makes him tick», » I am easy». Proverbs are usually metaphorical, e.g. «Too many cooks spoil the broth», while sayings are as a rule non-metaphorical, e.g. «Where there is a will there is a way».

33. Principles of classification of phraseological units. Classification of phraseological units according to the degree of motivation.

Phraseological units intrinsic resistance of the grammatical form of their components: each member of idiomatic combinations played in a certain grammatical form that can not be changed arbitrarily.The traditional and the oldest principle of classification of phraseological units is the "theme" or "etymological", which is built on the basis of the classification of phraseological units according to their origins. Idioms are classified according to the source of their origin, the sphere of human activity to which they relate, nature, natural phenomena, etc.Phraseological combinations - stable combinations with partially reinterpreted value, in which each of the components, while remaining non-free, retains some semantic independence, meaning that the unit can be derived from the values ​​of its constituent words. These EF English can be assigned the following expressions: to be at one's wits' end, to be good at something, to be a good hand at something, to have a bite, to come off a poor second, to come to a sticky end (coll.), to look a sight (coll.), to take something for granted, to stick to one's word, to stick at nothing,, gospel truth, bosom friends.P hraseological unity - is set phrases with completely reinterpreted value. These phraseological units are, for example, to stick to one's guns (~ to be true to one's views or convictions); to sit on the fence (~ in discussion, politics, etc. Refrain from committing oneself to either side); to lose one's head (~ to be at a loss what to do; to be out of one's mind); to lose one's heart to smb. (~ To fall in love); to lock the stable door after the horse is stolen (~ to take precautions too late, when the mischief is done) Phraseological fusion - is set phrases, which are semantically indivisible whole, as opposed to phraseological unities, they are completely demotivated, that is, a value is not derived from the values ​​of individual words, are part of the idiomatic seam. Examples of such phraseology adhesions may be: to come a cropper (to come to disaster); neck and crop (entirely, altogether, thoroughly, as in: He was thrown out neck and crop. She severed all relations with them neck and crop.) ; at sixes and sevens (in confusion or in disagreement); to set one's cap at smb. (To try and attract a man; spoken about girls and women); to leave smb. in the lurch (to abandon a friend when he is in trouble); to show the white feather (to betray one's cowardice. The allusion was originally to cock fighting. A white feather in a cock's plumage denoted a bad fighter); to dance attendance on smb. (To try and please or attract smb.; To show exaggerated attention to smb.).