37. Standard English variants and dialects.

Standard English is the official language of Great Britain taught at schools and universities, used by the press, the radio and television and spoken by educated people. It is that form of English that is current and literary, substantially uniform and recognized as acceptable wherever English is spoken or understood. Modern linguistics distinguishes territorial variants of a national language and local dialects. Variants of a language are regional varieties possessing a literary form. Besides British English there are two variants of English on the territory of the British Isles: Scottish English and Irish English. The main variants of the English language in the world are English in the USA, or American English, English in Canada, or Canadian English, English in Australia, or Australian English, English in New Zealand.

Local dialects are varieties of the English language characteristic for and used in some localities (districts), which have no normalized literary form. Cockney is the local Southern dialect of London. As spoken by the uneducated Londoners Cockney differs greatly from Standard English in phonetics, grammar and vocabulary.

An example of Scots ( Doric) dialect: leuk ower the window = lean out of the window and look out.

An example of Southern American dialect, from Uncle Remus: Br'er Fox, he lay low= Brother Fox is hiding.

38. Translation-loans as borrowings of a special type.

A calque or loan translation (itself a calque of German Lehnübersetzung) is a phrase borrowed from another language and translated literally word-for-word. You often see them in specialized or internationalized fields such as quality assurance (aseguramiento de calidad, assurance qualité taken from English). Examples that have been absorbed into English include standpoint and beer garden from German Standpunkt and Biergarten; breakfast from French déjeuner (which now means lunch in Europe, but maintains the same meaning of breakfast in Québec). Some calques can become widely accepted in the target language (such as standpoint, beer garden and breakfast and Spanish peso mosca and Casa Blanca from English flyweight and White House). The meaning other calques can be rather obscure for most people, especially when they relate to specific vocations or subjects such as science and law. Solución de compromiso is a Spanish legal term taken from the English compromise solution and although Spanish attorneys understand it, the meaning is not readily understood by the layman. An unsuccessful calque can be extremely unnatural, and can cause unwanted humor, often interpreted as indicating the lack of expertise of the translator in the target language.