21.Способи відтворення «лексично значущих» артиклів засобами української мови.

We all know that the article (definite and indefinite) is a functional word that serves to identify or determine the noun (to study – the study), the superlative degree of its quality (the highest building; the most beautiful girl…) or the order of the nouns in a word-group (the first visitor; he was the last to speak…) in a row of similar nouns. In some prepositional phrases articles may change their lexical-grammatical nature and become a particle (the more – the better – чим більше, тим краще); there are some occasions the definite/indefinite article may acquire some lexical meaning in certain contexts and thus serve as a peculiar means of “expressive connotation” (те, що мається на увазі; додаткове значення):

He lived more poorly than an artisan. Жив він бідніше за будь-якого ремісника.

I was terrified and couldn’t say a word. Я був наляканий і не міг сказати жодного слова.

1. the article can/may be an adjunctive/identifying adjective or a modal particle:

She had acquired a reputation for neatness and accuracy. - Вона здобула за ретельно виконану роботу (охайність та точність) солідну репутацію.

2. the article can/may have a distinctly nominal (іменний) or rather nominalizing meaning:

He took the bottle up and having surveyed and smelt it said…: “The?”

Він узяв пляшку, підняв, оглянув її, понюхав та сказав…: “І що?/Це вона і є?”

The meaning of the numeral one, on the other hand, is always expressed only through the indefinite article:

They lived in New York and shared a studio. Вони жили в Нью-Йорку та орендували (поділяли між собою) одну студію (однокімнатну квартиру).

The articles used emphatically, on the other hand, have usually particles for their contextual equivalents in Ukrainian:

Everything I could do was to content myself with a few mugs of beer. Все, що я міг зробити – це випити лише кілька кухлів пива.

22.Модальність у перекладі. Способи відтворення суб’єктивної та об’єктивної модальності висловлювання засобами української мови.

Modality as an extralingual category expressing the relation of content to reality has in English and Ukrainian common means of realization. These include:

1. phonological means (stress and intonation);

2. lexico-grammatical means (modal verbs);

3. lexical means (modal words and modal expressions) conveying subjective modality;

4. grammatical means (mood forms of the verb) conveying grammatical modality.

The expression of modal meanings by phonological means has often an identical realization in both languages, though in Ukrainian the lexical means such as modal particles and modal adverbs are mostly preferred here. These means may also express the most subtle meanings of suggestion, admonition, supposition, doubt, assuredness, etc. Among the most frequently used particles, which create such and other meanings, are аж, ж, хоч, б, би, і, й, -но, -то, саме, таки, etc., and also adverbs авжеж, адже, надто, певне, напевне, все ж, все ж таки, мов, немов, ніби and some others. The choice of the particle or modal adverb is predetermined by the content, though sometimes it rests only with the translator, who may employ stronger or weaker means to convey the modal meaning in the sentence.

After us the deluge. - 1. Після нас хоч потоп. or: 2. Після нас хоч і потоп.