13. The category of voice.

There are 2 main views on the definition.

1) Voice expresses the relations between the subject of an action and the action.

2) Voice expresses the relation between the subject and the object of an action.

The obvious opposition within the category is between Active and Passive (the doer performs an action- active verb.)

The passive voice is the marked member of the opposition: "be + participle 2", while the active verb is unmarked.

Are there other voices in English? Controversial question.

reflexive - the doer of an action performs an action directed on himself ( He dressed himself)

reciprocal - взаимный. They greeted each other. They met...

Middle voice - The book sells well; The door opened.

14. Pronouns. Classification and functions. The problem of substitution and representation.

A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun or a group of words used as a noun. Pronouns are classified in five (5) different categories. They are personal pronouns, relative pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, indefinite pronouns, and interrogative pronouns. Some pronouns can appear in more than one classification. The way in which a pronoun is classified depends on how it is used in a sentence. In the next two weeks we will study the five kinds of pronouns.

 Personal pronouns refer to (1) the speaker or speakers, which is called first person, and include the following pronouns: I, my, mine, me, myself, we, our, ours, us, ourselves; (2) those spoken to, which is called second person, and include the following pronouns: you, your, yours, yourself, yourselves; or (3) those spoken about, which is called third person, and includes the following pronouns: he, his, him, himself, she, her, hers, herself, it, its, itself, they, their, theirs, them, themselves. Personal pronouns can be singular (one) or plural (two or more) just as verbs and nouns.

2. Relative pronouns (who, which, what, thai, whoever, etc.) relate directly to a noun or pronoun in the preceding clause, and always introduce a dependent clause.

3. Interrogative pronouns (who, which, and what) are used to ask questions.

4. Demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these, those) "point out" clearly the person or thing referred to.

5. In contrast to the demonstrative pronouns are the indefinite pronouns, which do not specify a particular thing or person and are therefore called indefinite. For example, all, any, many, several, each, neither.

15. Adverbs. Semantics and pragmatics.

The adverb is usually defined as a verb expressing either property of an action or a property of another property or circumstances in which an action occurs. M.Y. Bloch proposed the idea of defining an adverb as a notional verb, expressing a non-substantive quality.

The adverb is characterized by some stem-building suffixes (-Ly) - clockwise, backwards, ashore).

Like an adjective the adverb is characterized by the category of degrees of comparison. The category of degrees of comparison of adverbs is a three-fold opposition of positive, comparative and superlative degrees. In accord with their categorical meaning adverbs can combine with verbs, adjectives and adverbs.

The functions of adverbs in these combinations consist in expressing different adverbial modifiers.

Adverbs are usually divided into three subclasses: qualitative, quantitative and circumstantial.

Qualitative adv. can have degrees of comparison. The can be combined with the verbs.

Quantitative – include words of degree (measure: highly, rather, too). Quantitative adv. modify adj., adverbs and verbs.

Circumstantial adv. do not characterize the action itself, but name certain circumstances. Unlike quantitative and qualitative they may occupy different position in the sentence. They can be characterized by certain stem-building suffixes.

Backwards, twice.

Circumstantial adv. are often morphologically indivisible. (North, down). They mostly used in the function of adv. modifiers of time and plays.