55 Failed, ibm turned to Bill Gates, then
25 years old, to write their operating system.
Bill Gates founded Microsoft on the basis of the development
60 of MS/DOS, the initial operating system for the IBM PC. Digital Research have continued to develop their operating system, DR/DOS, and it is considered by
65 many people to be a better product than Microsoft's. However, without an endorsement from IBM, it has
become a minor player in the
70 market. Novell, the leaders in PC networking, now own Digital Research, so things may
change.
The original IBM PC had a
75 minimum of 16K of memory, but this could be upgraded to 512K if necessary, and ran with a processor speed of 4.77MHz. Ten
years later, in 1991, IBM were
so making PCs with 16Mb of memory, expandable to 64Mb, running with a processor speed of 33MHz. The cost of buying the hardware has come down
85 considerably as the machines have become commodity items. Large companies are
considering running major applications on PCs, something
90 which, ten years ago, no one would have believed possible of a PC. In contrast, many
computers in people's homes are just used to play computer 95 games.
The widespread availability of computers has in all probability changed the world for ever. The microchip technology which
loo made the PC possible has put chips not only into computers, but also into washing-machines and cars. Some books may never be published in paper form, but
105 May only be made available as part of public databases.
Networks of computers are already being used to make information available on a world-
110 wide scale.
V 6 ocabulary
commodity items (1. 2 3) — items which can be produced and traded freely non-proprietary (I. 24) — not belonging to any single company
capitalize on (I. 3 3) — profit from, turn to one's advantage
Task
6 When
you read the text to decide on a title, which of the following did
you do?
Did
you:
7
Fl read quickly and try to understand the main theme?
underline or mark sentences that you thought were important? make notes about important points?
Which of these reading strategies do you think is most appropriate for this kind of task? Which do you think is least appropriate?
Task 7 Answer these questions about the text.
1 How many mainframes did IBM think it was possible to sell in 1952?
2 How many PCs have now been sold?
3 Who paid for the initial research into PCs?
4 Which company later used the results of this research to develop their operating system?
5 What are command-based operating systems?
6 DR/DOS is an acronym. What does it stand for?
7 Since the invention of the IBM PC, many of its features have been improved. Which of the following features does the text not mention in this respect?
a memory
b speed
c size
d cost
8 Give three examples from the text of how the availability of computers has 'in all probability changed the world for ever'.
Task 8 Task 9 |
Using the line references given, look back in the text and find words that have a similar meaning to: 1 international (lines 10-15) 2 contested (lines 15-20) 3 errors (lines 25-30) 4 paid for (lines 25-30) 5 buy (lines 45-50) 6 first (lines 60-65) 7 recommendation (lines 65-70) 8 improved (lines 75-80) Writing Translate the sixth paragraph (starting 'The original IBM PC...') into your own language. Look carefully at the tenses before you start. |
Task 10 |
Speaking The article states that 'many computers in people's homes are just used to play computer games'. Discuss the following questions: 1 In what other ways are computers used at home, or outside work? 2 If you already have a PC, how do you use it? (If not, how would you use one?) |
The processor
Reading
R
Task 11
8
Structure of the processor The processor consists of a' which are mounted 2 components linked together by 3 form of control, address, and data 4 |
, which is a circuit board on chips, memory chips, and other lines or channels in the . In addition, a processor |
has , which are electronic circuits providing specialized
functions such as graphics, or which connect a system board to
6 . The system board also consists of electronic devices, such
as an electronic for controlling the speed of operation;
8 , which store numeric data during the course of processing;
and various 9 _, including sequence control register, address register, and function register.
adaptor boards registers microprocessor
clock conductive buses
system board accumulators input or output devices
Reading
U
Task 12
A processor consists of many different electronic circuits and devices for performing control functions, arithmetic and logic operations, and data transfers. Data may be transferred from backing storage to the internal memory or from the internal memory to the arithmetic unit by means of
5 conductive channels known as buses. The part of the processor which controls data transfers between the various input and output devices is called the control unit.
used
to send address details between the memory and
the address register
consists
of an arithmetic-logic unit, one or more working
registers to store data being processed, and accumulators
for storing the results of calculations a group of signal lines
used to transmit data in parallel
from one element of a computer to another groups
of bistable devices used to store information in
a computer system for high-speed access
an
electronic circuit, usually a quartz crystal, that generates
electronic pulses at fixed time intervals to control
the timing of all operations in the processor used
for storing part of the operating system and application
software known as 'firmware'; can only be
read; cannot be written to or altered in any way used
to store numeric data during processing
a
group of signal lines dedicated to the passing of control
signals
used
for the temporary storage of application programs
and data; can be written to and read from
9
1 |
microprocessor chip a |
|
2 |
registers |
b |
3 |
accumulators |
c |
4 |
control bus |
d |
5 |
address bus |
e |
6 |
data bus |
f |
7 |
clock |
g |
8 |
RAM |
h |
9 |
ROM |
i |
|
Speaking |
Task 13 |
Work in pairs. Write down the list of terms (1-9) in Task 12 on a piece of paper. Without referring to your book, take turns to ask and answer questions about their functions. 10' Useful expressions What is/are . . .? What does/do . . . do% |
Across
1 A conductive line such as a data bus. (7)
2 A visual symbol used in a menu to represent a file or program. (4)
3 An input device used in computer games. (7)
4 An device converts the electrical signals inside a computer into a form
that can exist outside the computer. (6)
S The name given to system software that is held in ROM. (8)
6 A device with one or more buttons used to point at locations on a computer screen. (5)
7 The part of the CPU that transmits co-ordinating control signals and commands to the computer. (7,4)
8 1,048,576 bytes. (8)
9 A large store of computerized data. (8)
10 The system was first used commercially on the Apple Macintosh
computer, but is now widely used on IBM machines. (7)
11 A signal route dedicated to sending information about locations within a computer. (7,3)
Down
12 A register containing the results of an operation performed by the arithmetic-logic unit. (11)
10
Language focus A
Contextual reference
Transitional markers are words used to link ideas together so that the text is easier to read. When pronouns such as it, they, them, I, he, she, which, who, whose, that, such, one, and demonstrative adjectives such as this, that, these and those, are used as transitional markers, they refer to a word, or words, mentioned earlier in the sentence or paragraph. Their function is to take your thoughts back to something that has already been mentioned. Other words which are often used to refer backwards are the former, the latter, the first, second, etc., the last.
11
Exercise
1
12
Exercise 2 |
Using the line reference given, look back at the reading passage in Unit 1, page 6, and find the reference for the words in italics. 1 anyone can make them (line 25) 2 the ideas that they put (line 34) 3 This was a graphical interface (line 37) 4 it became the standard machine (line 44) 5 these are operating systems (line 50) 6 it has become a minor player (line 68) 7 this could be upgraded (line 76) |
13
`This is the smallest, most powerful computer in the world.'
`Those? Those are the batteries.'
Start-up
Task 1 Discuss the following questions:
1 How small do you think computers can usefully become?
2 To what extent does the size of a computer influence what it can be used for? Think of examples to illustrate your answer.
L
14
Task 2 Listen to the following extract from a radio talk show called Computerworks in
which the host talks with Sandra Cavanah, a writer with a computer magazine. As you listen, fill in the missing information about the various portable computers.
|
Portable Power: Weight: Screen size: Inplnputvice: |
runs on between 15 and about ten inches diagonally keyboard |
pounds |
|
Notebook Power: batteries Weight: as little as Screen size: as small as _ Input device: keyboard |
pounds inches |
Reading
T
ask
3 Before
reading the text, match these words with their definitions:
a clipboard
b stylus
c screen
d grid
e voltage
f pixel
g
template
1 surface on which pictures or data are shown
2 electrical force
3 pattern used as a guide for creating letters or characters
4 individual dot on a computer screen
5 network of lines crossing at right angles
6 pointed implement for drawing or writing
7 portable board with a clip at the top for holding papers
Task 4 Read the text and decide why the author chose the title Delete Keys. Can you
suggest a better title?
Delete Keys - Clipboard Technology
FOR THE LAST GENERATION, Silicon Valley and Tokyo have
been working to design computers that are ever easier to use. There is
5 one thing, however, that has prevented the machines from becoming their user-friendliest: you still have to input data with a keyboard, and that can require you
10 to do a lot of typing and to memorize a lot of elaborate commands.
Enter the clipboard computer, a technology that has been in
15 development for the last 20 years but took hold in the mass market only this year. Clipboard PCs —which, as their name suggests, are not much bigger than an actual
20 clipboard — replace the keyboard with a liquid crystal display (LCD) screen and an electronic stylus. Users input data by printing individual letters directly on the
25 screen.
There are two technologies at work in a clipboard PC: one allows raw data to get into the computer and the other allows the computer
30 to figure out what that data means. The first technology relies principally on hardware and varies depending on the particular computer. In one system, marketed
35 under the name GRIDPad, the computer's LCD screen is covered by a sheet of glass with a transparent conductive coating. Voltage is sent
a
15
40 vertical lines forming a fine grid; at any point on the grid, the voltage is slightly different. When the stylus — which is essentially a voltmeter — touches
45 the screen, it informs the
computer of the voltage at that point. The computer uses this information to determine where the stylus is and causes a liquid
so crystal pixel to appear at those
coordinates. The position of the stylus is monitored several hundred times a second, so as the stylus moves across the glass,
55 whole strings of pixels are activated.
`What we do is sort of connect
the dots,' says Jeff Hawkins, the creator of GRIDPad. 'Users can
60 then write whatever they want on the screen with a kind of electronic ink.'
Making that writing comprehensible to the computer,
65 however, requires the help of some powerful software. When the stylus is being used, the computer is programmed to look for moments when the tip does
70 not touch the screen for a third of a second or more. Every time this happens — and it happens a lot when somebody is printing —the software assumes that one
75 letter or number has been
written. The pixel positions of 10.-
41 this fresh character are then passed on to the computer's pattern recognition software, which
so instantly identifies the letter or number written.
The software does this by first cleaning up the character —smoothing out crooked lines and
85 removing errant dots. The remaining lines and curves are then compared with a series of templates in the computer's memory that represent hundreds of thousands of
90 different versions of every letter in the English alphabet and all ten numerals. When the computer finds the closest match, it encodes the character in memory and displays it
95 on the screen as if it had been typed. The entire process takes just a fraction of a second. To delete a word, you simply draw a line through it. To move to the next
too page, you flick the stylus at the bottom of the screen as if you're flicking the page of a book.
There are a handful of clipboard
computers now on the market,
105 including GRIDPad, which is sold in the US; Penvision, manufactured by NCR and sold around the world;
and Sony's Palmtop and Canon's Al Note, both sold only in Japan.
1() IBM and Apple are also pouring millions of dollars into the technology.
In addition to this hardware, a variety of software is also
115 making its way to the market. Depending on the power of the computer and the sophistication of the software, clipboard
systems can be programmed to
120 understand the particular quirks of a particular user's printing; this is an especially useful
feature in Japan, where
elaborate kanji characters make
125 up most of the written language. Improvements in software may soon allow machines sold in the US to understand not only printing but continuous script as
130 well.
Given such flexibility, the designers of clipboard computers are predicting big things — and a big market — for their products.
135 'There's no doubt about it,' says an optimistic Hawkins. 'You're going to own one of these things in the not-too-distant future.' ■
1
► Vocabulary
printing (1. 73) — (in this case) writing separated letters or numbers by hand kanji (1. 124) — Japanese script which uses Chinese characters
Task
5
16
D
The Americans and the Japanese are working together to produce user-friendlier computers.
1
On a clipboard, an electronic pen replaces the traditional keyboard.
ln the GRlDPad system, when the pen touches the screen, it informs the computer and a liquid crystal pixel appears at that point.
The software decides that one character or number is complete if the tip of the stylus is not in contact with the screen for more than half a second. The whole process of recognizing letters or numbers and printing them on the screen takes very little time.
There are many clipboard computers sold today which are all available everywhere in the world.
Clipboard systems can be made to understand any kind of writing.
17
Task 7 |
Using the line reference given, look back in the text and find the reference for the words in italics. 1 from becoming their user-friendliest (line 7) 2 one allows raw data to get (line 27) 3 it informs the computer (line 45) 4 Every time this happens (line 72) 5 which instantly identifies (line 79) 6 it encodes the character in memory (line 93) 7 this is an especially (line 122) 8 for their products (line 134) |
Task 8 |
Using the line references given, look back in the text and find words or phrases that have a similar meaning to: 1 understand (lines 2 5-30) 2 sold (lines 30-35) 3 covering (lines 35-40) 4 points (lines 50-55) 5 join (lines 55-60) 6 making even (lines 80-85) 7 not straight (lines 80-85) 8 made by mistake (lines 85-90) 9 move quickly and sharply (lines 95-100) 10 unique features (lines 115-120) |
Task 9 |
Choose the correct word to complete each sentence. You may have to change some words slightly. • |
1 electron, electronic, electronics, electronically
a An pen is one example of an input device.
b A computer solves problems
c Many students go on to work as engineers.
2 technology, technological, technologically, technologist
a The computer is the greatest invention of the twentieth
century.
b There are two involved in a clipboard PC.
c Today's computers are far superior to those used a few years ago.
3 identify, identifying, identifiable, identity
a The clipboard's pattern recognition software immediately the letters and numbers written by the stylus.
b Most computer companies will not allow people without an card to enter their premises.
c A password is a mechanism for the computer-user and
allowing access.
4 compute, computing, computation, computerize, computerization
a The of the manufacturing division will be expensive in the
short term, but cost-effective in the long term.
b We should be able to with the new program. c I could tell from all the in progress. |
|
our profit for next year fairly accurately on the board that a maths lesson was |
|
|
Writing |
Tas 10 |
Translate the third paragraph (starting 'There are two technologies...' ) into your language. Check the meaning of any unfamiliar technical words in the glossary at the back of this book. |
Speaking
T
18
1 What are the limitations of portable computers?
2 Do you think students should be allowed to use portable computers in class?
Task 12
19
You may base your material on the advertisement above, but do not copy straight from the text.
S
20
T ask 13 Work in pairs.
Student A: You are a sales representative trying to sell your company's notebook computer. You are presenting your product to the Sales Director of a manufacturing company which is thinking of buying 30 notebook computers for the sales staff. Decide on the specifications and complete the table below. Then try to persuade the Sales Director to buy your product.
Name
Type (size)
Processor type Operating speed Memory
Display
Power supply Cost
Other features
Useful expressions It costs...
It runs/operates on... It weighs...
Student B: You are the Sales Director of a manufacturing company. You are considering buying 30 notebook computers for your sales staff. Find out about all the specifications of the model on offer. Decide whether it is suitable for your needs.
Useful expressions
How much does it cost?
What power source does it use? How big/heavy is it?
Operating systems
Reading
Task 14 Before you read the text, try to answer the following questions:
1 What is an operating system and what is its purpose?
2 Where is an operating system stored and how is it transferred to internal memory?
3 List some of the tasks typically performed by an operating system.
Now read the text and check your answers.
G
21
An operating system is a master control program which controls the functions of the computer system as a whole and the running of
application programs. All computers do not use the same operating systems. It is therefore important to assess the operating system used on a
5 particular model before initial commitment because some software is only
designed to run under the control of specific operating systems. Some operating systems are adopted as 'industry standards' and these are the ones which should be evaluated because they normally have a good software base. The reason for this is that software houses are willing to
1() expand resources on the development of application packages for machines functioning under the control of an operating system which is widely used. The cost of software is likely to be lower in such circumstances as the development costs are spread over a greater number of users, both actual and potential.
15 Mainframe computers usually process several application programs concurrently, switching from one to the other, for the purpose of increasing processing productivity. This is known as multiprogramming (multi-tasking in the context of microcomputers), which requires a powerful operating system incorporating work scheduling facilities to
20 control the switching between programs. This entails reading in data for one program while the processor is performing computations on another and printing out results on yet another.
In multi-user environments an operating system is required to control terminal operations on a shared access basis as only one user can access
25 the system at any moment of time. The operating system allocates control to each terminal in turn. Such systems also require a system for record locking and unlocking, to prevent one user attempting to read a record whilst another user is updating it, for instance. The first user is allocated control to write to a record (or file in some instances) and other users are
30 denied access until the record is updated and unlocked.
Some environments operate in concurrent batch and real-time mode. This means that a 'background' job deals with routine batch processing whilst the 'foreground' job deals with real-time operations such as airline seat reservations, on-line booking of hotel accommodation, or control of
35 warehouse stocks, etc. The real-time operation has priority, and the operating system interrupts batch processing operations to deal with real-time enquiries or file updates. The stage of batch processing attained at the time of the interrupt is temporarily transferred to backing storage. After the real-time operation has been dealt with, the interrupted program is
40 transferred back to internal memory from backing storage, and processing recommences from a 'restart' point. The operating system also copies to disk backing storage the state of the real-time system every few minutes (periodic check points) to provide a means of 'recovering' the system in the event of a malfunction.
45 An operating system is stored on disk and has to be booted into the internal memory (RAM) where it must reside throughout processing so that commands are instantly available. The operating system commands may exceed the internal memory capacity of the computer in which case only that portion of the OS which is frequently used is retained internally,