Additional texts

Text 1. History of Britain

Celts and Romans.The first inhabitants of Britain were the Celts. They crossed the English Channel many centuries before the Christian era. The Celts or Britons practised agriculture and dug up¹ minerals such as tin, lead and gold. Their religion was Druidism and their priests, the Druids, were famous for their magic arts. Roman legions led² by Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 B.C. The Romans eventually conquered much of the island and ruled it for almost 400 years. They built cities, country estates, bridges, and roads. The Romans could not control the entire island. In the northern part of Britain, in the area known today as Scotland, lived peoples called the Picts and the Scots. They resisted Roman rule³ and attacked Roman settlements in the south. To keep them out, Roman soldiers built great walls with forts and towers. The greatest monument they left is Hadrian’s Wall, between England and Scotland. The Romans also had difficulties in the area that they did rule. They could not win over the Celts. Most Celts lived in their own villages and were not interested in or influenced by the Romans culture. Roman rule in Britain began to crumble⁴ during the fourth century A.D. This was because Roman soldiers were called home to defend the empire’s borders against the invasions by the Germans and the Huns.

The Anglo-Saxons. After the last legions left in 410 A.D., the island was gradually invaded by groups from northern Germany and Denmark called Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. They were strong warriors and by the seventh century A.D. controlled most of the island. The Angles, Saxons, and Jutes united to become the Anglo-Saxons. They built settlements, farmed the land, and set up several small kingdoms. The southern part of Britain soon became known as Angleland, or England. The people became known as the English. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Britain followed the Germanic religions. Pope Gregory I decided to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. In 597 A.D. he sent a mission of 41 monks to England under the leadership⁵ of the monk Augustine. By 700 A.D., all England was Christian. The Pope was head of the church. Many monasteries were built in England and they became centres of religion and culture. One of the monks, Bede, was a great scholar⁶. He wrote the first history of the English people. Even though they accepted Christianity, the Anglo-Saxons kept much of their old culture. They told and retold old legends about brave⁷ warriors fighting monsters and dragons. One such legend was about a warrior named Beowulf. In the eighth century A.D., it was written down as an epic poem called Beowulf which became known as the most important work of Anglo-Saxon literature.

Alfred. About 835 A.D., bands of Danes began raiding⁸ the coast of England. Before long, they were making permanent settlements in conquered areas. The English kingdoms decided to resist the invaders. They chose as their leader Alfred, King of Wessex. Alfred later became known as Alfred the Great, one of England’s best loved monarchs. Alfred built the first English fighting ships and constructed fortresses at regular intervals throughout the country. He was no longer just the king of Wessex but the King of England. Alfred never became strong enough to drive the Danes completely from England. So he signed a treaty with them. It recognized the right of the Danes to rule the northeast part of the country, an area that became known as the Danelaw. The Danes had destroyed part of the English city of London. Alfred had it re-built and, before long, it was the country’s leading city. Alfred issued⁹ new laws based on old Anglo-Saxon customs. Alfred was well-educated. He wanted the English people to be well-educated, too. Like Charlemagne, he started a school in one of his palaces to train¹⁰ nobles’ sons for government positions. At that time, books were usually written in Latin. Alfred’s scholars translated the books into English, so that the people would become familiar with their history and he had the monks begin a record of English History starting from the time of the Romans.

William the Conqueror. In 1042, the witan¹¹ made Edward the Confessor, an English prince, King of England. He spent so much time in religious work that he failed to carry out¹² his royal duties. As a result, the nobles increased their hold on the country. The most powerful noble was Harold. When Edward died in 1065 without an heir¹³, Harold became the new king. William, Duke of Normandy, a cousin of Edward the Confessor, claimed¹⁴ that before Edward died, he had promised him the English throne. In 1066, William led an army of 5,000 Norman archers and knights across the sea to England. They met Harold’s army in battle near Hastings, a town on the coast, south of London. By nightfall, King Harold was dead, and the English were defeated¹⁵. On Christmas Day, William, now known as William the Conqueror, was crowned King of England in Westminster-Abbey, in London. At first, the English resisted William’s rule. To crush¹⁶ English revolts¹⁷ William introduced feudalism into England. He seized¹⁸ the lands of English nobles and divided them among Norman nobles. In return for the lands, the nobles became William’s vassals. They promised to be loyal to the king and provide him with soldiers.

William maintained many English laws and government practices.

He also brought continental ways to England. Under his rule, the English learned Norman customs and the French language. The wealthy built castles, cathedrals, and monasteries in the French style. The people learned new skills¹⁹ from Norman weavers and other workers.

The Magna Charta. John became king in 1199, when his brother Richard, called «the Lionheart», died. He lost most of his lands in France and gained the name of «Lackland». When he increased taxes and began to ignore the law, the nobles became angry. They refused to obey him unless he agreed to give them certain rights and privileges. In 1215, John met the nobles in the meadow of Runnymede, where they forced him to sign the Magna Charta, or Great Charter.

The Magna Charta lessened the king’s power and increased that of the nobles. A king could no longer collect taxes without the consent of the Great Council. A freeman accused of a crime had the right to a trial by his peers. The king had to obey the laws.

Although the Magna Charta was written by nobles for nobles, it came to be viewed as an important step towards democracy. It brought to the government the new idea that not even a king is above the law.

The Hundred Years’ War. In the early 1300s, the English still held a small part of southwest France. The kings of France, who were growing more powerful, wanted to drive²⁰ the English out. In 1337, the English king, Edward III, declared himself king of France. This angered the French even more. In 1339, the French and English fought the first in a long series of battles known as the Hundred Years’ War.

The Hundred Years’ War began when the English defeated the French fleet and won control of the sea. The English then invaded France. They defeated the French at the Battle of Crecy in 1347 and again at the Battle of Agincourt in 1417. By 1453, the English held only the French seaport at Calais, and the war came to an end.

Notes dug up: excavated. led: headed. rule: government. crumble: collapse. leadership: state of having a leader. scholar: person who studies a subject. brave: courageous. raiding: attacking and stealing. issued: made. train: teach, prepare. witan: in Anglo-Saxon England, assembly of important men. carry out: perform. heir: one who inherits. claimed: asserted. defeated: beaten. crush: put down. revolts: rebellions. seized: confiscated. skills: techniques. drive: push, force.

The Wars of the Roses. Peace did not come to England after the Hundred Years’ War. In 1445, two noble families, York and Lancaster, began a struggle²¹ for the throne which lasted many years. The York symbol was a white rose, and the Lancaster symbol was a red rose. For this reason the struggle between York and Lancaster was called the Wars of the Roses.

The Tudors. When the struggles of the Wars of the Roses ended in 1485, a family called the Tudors, who fought on the Lancastrian side, took over²² the English throne. The first Tudor king, Henry VII, prepared the way for the Renaissance. He strengthened the monarchy and encouraged trade, which made England peaceful and prosperous.

His efforts were continued by his son, Henry VIII, who became king in 1509. Henry VIII enjoyed and encouraged art, literature, music, hunting, and festivities. He even composed his own music. Under his rule, English nobles and merchants began to look to Renaissance Italy for guidance in politics, diplomacy and behavior.

The Church of England. The reformation of the Church of England was led by the monarch. It started as a political quarrel between the Tudor king, Henry VIII, and Pope Clement VII in 1526. At that time Henry was married to Catherine of Aragon, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain and the aunt of the German emperor Charles V. Henry and Catherine had one child, Mary. Now that Catherine was older, Henry feared she could no longer have children, and Henry wanted a son to succeed to the throne. At the same time Henry had fallen in love with Anne Boleyn, a young woman of the court. He wanted the Pope to end his marriage to Catherine so that he could marry Anne and hopefully have a son. When the Pope refused, Henry declared that the Pope no longer had power over the Church in England. In 1534, the English Parliament passed a law known as the Act of Supremacy stating²³ that the king was head of the English Church. Any English church leader who did not accept the law would stand trial²⁴ as a traitor. One of the most famous men executed for opposing the king’s policy was Thomas More. Henry divorced Catherine and married Anne Boleyn. A few years later he had her executed for treason²⁵Anne’s only child had been a girl, Elizabeth. Henry then married Jane Seymour, who died shortly after giving Henry the son he wanted.

Notes struggle: fight. took over: took control of. stating: declaring. stand trial: be taken to court. treason: betraying one’s country.

Language box: Place-names and the early invasions

Early settlements were given names that described them. Today many place-names have lost their meaning as words. This is because the languages from which they came have changed so much or died. For example, modern English doesn’t help us to know that Marylebone (in London) once meant the stream at St Mary’s Church. Place-names are interesting because they preserve elements of the languages spoken earlier in the British Isles.

CELTIC. When the Anglo-Saxon invaders arrived in Britain in 449 AD, they brought with them the English language. The native Celtic-speaking Britons were pushed west. Only a few Celtic words remain in place-names, e.g.

avon = river

e.g. Avonmouth is a town ‘at the mouth of a river’

aber = mouth (of a river)

e.g. Aberystwyth means ‘at the mouth of the river Ystwyth’

caer = fort

e.g. Cardiff means ‘a fort on the river Taf’

THE ROMAN INVASION. The Romans had very little influence on place-names, partly because people continued to speak Celtic. Only a few elements remain, e.g.

-chester, -cester, -caster=camp

e.g. Colchester means ‘a Roman camp on the river Colne’

THE ANGLO-SAXON INVASIONS. The most common elements are:

-ing = a group of people

e.g. Reading means ‘Reada’s people’

-ham = a village

e.g. Aldeham means ‘an old village’

-ingham, a combination of -ing and -ham

e.g. Birmingham means ‘the village of Beornmund’s people’

-ton = a farm, village

e.g. Stretton means ‘a village on a Roman road’

THE VIKING INVASION. Common elements are:

-burgh, -bury, -borough = a town

e.g. Newbury

-ford = ford, crossing place on a river

e.g. Oxford means ‘a ford for oxen’

THE NORMAN INVASION. The Normans had an almost revolutionary effect on the development of English, but almost none on place-names, except for some small places e.g. Beaulieu (pronounced Bewly) = beautiful place.

Battle (from bataille = battle), a small town near the site of the battle of Hastings of 1066.

Is the meaning of place-names in your country obvious today? Are there elements of other languages in them?

Ex.1. Find the six verbs in the past tense in the texts “Celts and Romans” and “The Anglo-Saxons” which are synonyms of those given and write their paradigms. The first one is done for you.

a) excavated

dug to dig - dug - dug

b) headed

c) constructed

d) started

e) established

f) narrated

Ex.2. Write six sentences about Alfred the Great using the following verbs in the past tense: to be, to build, to become, to sing, to have, to want.

e.q. Alfred was one of England’s best-loved monarchs.

a) ........................................

b).........................................

c) ........................................

d) ........................................

e) ........................................

f)......................................

Ex.3. Match the clauses on the left with those on the right.

	a) Edward III declared himself King of France …. b) The French and English fought a long series of battles… c) Two noble families fought the Wars of the Roses… d) Henry VIII led the Reformation of the Church of England … e) The English Parliament passed the “Act of Supermacy”…		… which made the king head of the church …which angered the French …which were known as the Hundred Years’ War …which lasted for thirty years ….which started as a political quarrel with the Pope

Ex.4. In the chart below there are some words taken from the text; say which class they belong to (adjective, noun or adverb), isolate the suffixes and say how they are formed. The first one is done for you.

Word Class Formation

inhabitants - noun; inhabit + ants; Germanic

gradually

settlements

leadership

feudalism

powerful

guidance

hopefully

reformation

prosperous

famous

Ex.5. Now choose five of the above words and write a sentence for each.

e.g. The Celts were the first inhabitants of Britain.

a) .........................................

b) .........................................

c) .........................................

d) .........................................

e) .........................................

Ex.6. Add the correct years to these sentences.

e.g. The witan made Edward the Confessor King of England in 1042.

a) Harold became king in .......

b)William the Conqueror was crowned King of England on 25^th December, ..................

c)Richard the Lionheart died in .....................................

d)King John signed the Magna Charta in ..........................

Text 2. British Institutons

Parliament. Parliament is the most important authority in Britain. Parliament first met in the 13^th cen­tury and its powers developed gradually. Britain does not have a written constitution, but a set of laws:

1215: the nobles forced King John to accept Magna Charta;

1264: the first parliament of nobles met;

1689: Declaration of Rights. Mary II and William III became the first constitutional monarchs. They could rule only with the support of the Parliament; since then the power of Parliament has grown under a number of Acts of Parliament. Technically Parliament is made up of three parts: The Monarch, the House of Lords and the House of Commons.

The Monarchy. The United Kingdom is a Constitutional monarchy, which means that the

sovereign reigns, but does not rule. The continuity of the English monarchy has been interrupted only once, from 1649-59, during the Cromwell republic. Succession to the throne is hereditary but only for Protestants in the direct line of descent. The monarch has a number of roles and serves formally as head of state, head of the executive, head of the judiciary, head of the legislature, commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and "supreme governor" of the Church of England. The monarch is expected to be politically neutral, and should not make political decision, and in fact, he acts only on the advice of political ministers and cannot make laws, impose taxes, spend public money or act unilaterally. In this sense, contemporary Britain is governed by her Majesty's Government in the name of the Queen. Neverthe­less, the monarch still performs some important executive and legislative duties including opening and dissolving Parliament, signing bills which have been passed by both Houses (the Royal Assent), holding audiences with the Prime Minister and fulfilling international duties as head of state. The monarch is a permanent part of the British political system, unlike temporary politicians, and therefore often has a greater knowledge of domestic and international politics. The present sovereign is Queen Elizabeth II who was crowned in Westminster Abbey in 1953. Arguments against the monarchy as a continuing institution in British life maintain that it is out of date, too expensive and nondemocratic, while ar­guments in favour suggest that it has developed and adapted to modern requirements and that it demonstrates stability, is not subject to political manipulation and performs an im­portant ambassadorial function in Britain and overseas. The British public in general shows considerable affection for the Royal Family over and above its representative role.

The House of Lords. The House of Lords comprises about 1200 peers including hereditary peers, life peers, and lords of appeal, archbishops and bishops. The house is presided over by the Lord Chancellor. The House of Lords has no real power but acts rather as an advisory council for the House of Commons. In fact, the Lords can suggest amendments to a bill proposed by the Commons but after two rejections they are obliged to accept it. As well as having legislative functions, the Lords is the highest court of appeal. Many people think that the House of Lords should be abolished.

The House of Commons.The House of Commons consists of Members of Parliament (MPs) who are elected by the adult suffrage of the British people in general elections which are held at least every five years. The country is divided into 650 constituencies each of which elects one MP who then holds a seat in Parliament. The Commons, therefore, has 650 MPs, of whom only 6.3 percent are women. The party, which wins the most seats, forms the Government and its leader becomes Prime Minister. The functions of the House of Commons are legis­lation and scrutiny of government activities. The house is presided over by the Speaker who is appointed by the leader of the Opposition. The Government party sits on the Speaker's right while on his left sit the members of the Opposition. Unlike the members of the House of Lords, all members of the House of Commons are paid a salary.

The Parliamentary System. General elections are by secret ballot, but voting is not compulsory in Britain. British, Commonwealth and Irish Republic citizen may all vote provided they are resident in Brit­ain, aged 18 or over, registered in a constituency and not subject to disqualification (for example, certain mentally ill patients and persons convicted of corrupt or illegal election practices). Each political party puts up one candidate for each constituency and the one who wins the most votes is elected MP for that area. This system is known as the simple majority or the "first past the post" system. There has been much debate about the British electoral system since it is unfair to smaller parties, and campaigns continue for some form of Proportional Representation, which would create a wider selection of parties in the House of Commons and cater for minority political interests. But the two leading parties have preferred the existing system although recently the Labour Party has shown more sympathy towards some kind of change. Those in favour of the British system maintain that it gives the governing party greater power and stability as opposed to the PR system, which inevitably results in a coalition government.

The Political Parties. Thanks to the British electoral system there are few political parties in Britain. The main ones are: the Conservative Party, the Labour Party and the Liberal/Social Democratic Alli­ance. In recent years the Green Party has gained a good number of votes but very few seats. Other smaller parties such as the Scottish National Party, Plaid Cymru (The Welsh National Party), the Protestant Northern Irish parties and Sinn Fein (the Catholic Northern Irish Party) also have some representation in the House of Commons. The Conservative Party mainly represents the middle and upper classes, but a sizeable percentage of skilled and unskilled workers have always voted Conservative. Its support comes mostly from business interests and it upholds the values of tradition, free enterprise and privatization. The party's strongholds tend to be in southern England. The Conservative Party has been in power since 1979 and its present leader is John Major who took over from Margaret Thatcher when she resigned in November 1990. The Labour Party has traditionally gath­ered its support from the Trade Unions, the working class and some middle class backing. Its electoral strongholds have always been in south Wales, Scotland, and the Midlands and northern English industrial cities. Its policies are nationalization and the welfare state. The Liberal/ Social Democratic Alliance are dissatisfied with both the main parties and are critical of the election system.

The Prime Minister. When the leader of the party who wins the elections is made Prime Minister, his first job is to choose his cabinet consisting of the most important ministers in the government. The Prime Minister usually sits in the Commons, as do most of the minister, where they may all be questioned and held accountable for government actions and decisions. Argu­ments suggest that the office of prime minister has become like an all-powerful presidency and, indeed, there is a greater emphasis today on prime ministerial government rather than the traditional constitutional notions of Cabinet government. Much depends on the personality of the leader. The Prime Minister usually takes policy decisions with the agreement of the Cabinet. The Prime Minister's official London address is No. 10, Downing Street.

Ex.1. State whether the following statements are TRUE (T) or FALSE (F) and correct the false ones.

a) The UK is an absolute monarchy

b) The first child of the monarch automatically becomes king/queen on his/ her death or abdication.

c) The Royal Assent means that the monarch is not present.

d) Cromwell's republic lasted ten years.

e) Britain's Constitutions was written down in the 13^th century.

f) Magna Charta was created by the nobles.

Ex.2. Find the words in the text that mean the following.

1. Making law …………………………………………………………………

2. Carrying out laws……………………………………………………………

3. Military ……………………………………………………………………..

4. Present-day …………………………………………………………………

5. Those who inherit titles …………………………………………………….

6. Those who are awarded titles on merit …………………………………….

7. A proposed law …………………………………………………………….

8. Old-fashioned ………………………………………………………………

9. Home affairs………………………………………………………………...

Ex.3. Write four arguments for or four arguments against the monarchy in Britain.

a)…………………………………………………………………………………....

b) …………………………………………………………………………………..

c)……………………………………………………………………………………

d)……………………………………………………………………………………

What is your personal opin­ion?……………………………………………………

Why do think most British people are fond of the Royal Family?…………………

Which other countries can you think of that have a monarchy?…………………..

Ex.4. What are the following dates important for? Look back over the texts and answer like this: :e.g. 1953 - The crowning of Queen Elizabeth,

a) 1215 - The ……….of ……..

b) 1264 - The ……….of……..

c) 1689 – The ……….of…….

d) 1649 - The ……….of…….

e) 1066 - The ……….of…….

f) 1558- The ……….of…….

Ex.5. Make questions for the following answers (referring to the text).

a) Every five years.

……………………………………………………………………………………...

b) 650.

……………………………………………………………………………………..

c) 93.7%

……………………………………………………………………………………..

d) 18

……………………………………………………………………………………..

e) One.

……………………………………………………………………………………...

f) Three.

……………………………………………………………………………………...

Ex. 6. Which party would you probably vote for if . . .

a). . . you lived in Brighton?

125. b). . . you lived in Birmingham?

126. c). . . you lived in Glasgow?

127. d). . . you were a Catholic in Belfast?

Ex. 7. Complete the following with anyone, anything, anytime, anyway or anywhere

1. She said I could call on her …… I liked.

b)…… who cheats will be satified.

128. c) You can sit …… you like.

129. d)……you say will be taken down and used in evidence.

130. e) You can do …… you like.

Ex. 8. Explain the British electoral system in your own words.

Now compare it with the electoral system in your country.

What are the three main differences between the two houses?

Ex. 9. Which British party supports. . .

a). . .nationalization?

131. b). . . privatization?

132. c).. . changing the electoral system?

133. d). . . taking care of the environment?

134. e). . . Welfare State?

135. f). . . the Catholic minority in Northern Ireland?

136. g). . . free enterprise?

Text 3. British Literature

English Renaissance. The English Renaissance started with the reign of the Tudor family and reached its height with Elizabeth I. Elizabeth often made journeys throughout the kingdom so that the people could see her. During her travels she stayed at the homes of the nobles who enter­tained her with banquets, parades, and dances. Poets and writers praised Elizabeth in their writings. Sons of merchants, lawyers, and landowners copied Italian clothes and manners and came to court to capture her attention and favour. Poetry, music and drama became part of daily life. Most nobles wrote poetry. People of all classes enjoyed singing ballads and folk songs. Many played such musical instruments as violins, guitars and lutes. The people of Renaissance England were especially fond of plays. Not since ancient Greece had so many plays been written and performed. About 1580, the first theatres were built in England.

William Shakespeare. One of the best-known English playwrights was William Shakespeare. He drew ideas for his tragedies and comedies from the history of England and ancient Rome. He often used Italian scenes, characters, and tales in his plays. Many experts consider Shakespeare the greatest writer and the greatest playwright in the English language. We know very little about Shakespeare's life. We know for sure that he was born at Stratford-upon-Avon, in England, in 1564. When he was 18 he married Anne Hathaway, a woman ten years older than he was. By 1582 he was in London, working as an actor and playwright, and here he spent most of his life. He died in Stratford-upon-Avon in 1616, when he was only 52. A Shakespeare festival is held every summer in Stratford.

William Shakespeare wrote thirty-seven plays, which may be divided into:

Comedies, such as the Merchant of Midsummer Night's Dream and the Tempest. Tragedies, such as Hamlet, Macbeth, Othello and King Lear. Historical plays, such as Richard II, Henry IV, and Richard III which deal with English history. Julius Caesar, An­thony and Cleopatra and Coriolanus, which deal with Roman history. Shakespeare's plays were written in blank verse (iambic pentameters) and are the basis for the English theatri­cal tradition. They have been translated into almost all the languages of the world and are admired everywhere for the beauty and poetry of the language and for Shakespeare's abil­ity to represent the complexity of life and to put real people on the stage.

Ex. 1. Complete the following sentences using one of these verbs: to impress, to enjoy one­self, to meet, to glorify, to amuse. E.g Elizabeth made journeys throughout the kingdom to meet the people.

a) The nobles put on banquets, parades and dances to . . .

137. b) Sons of merchants, lawyers and land­owners came to court to. . . .

c) Poets and writers wrote poems and stories to . . . .

d) People sang ballads and folk songs to . . . .

138. Ex. 2. Complete the blanks in this short summary on Shakespeare’s life and works.

William Shakespeare was born in . . .in 1564. At the age of 18 he . . . Anne Hathaway, who . . . 28. He worked in London . .. an actor and wrote most of his . . . there. He died at Stratford at the . . . 52. He wrote 37 plays including comedies, . . . and historical plays. Many of the themes came . . . the history of England and . . . Rome. He is considered one of the . . . playwrights in the . . . language and his works made . . . the basis for the English theatrical tradition.

Ex.3. Put in the preposition where necessary

139. a) Shakespeare was born . . . Stratford-upon-Avon.

140. b) Shakespeare married . . . Anne Hathaway when he was 18.

141. c) Shakespeare’s plays are admired . . . their beauty.

142. d) The people . . . Renaissance England were very fond . . . plays.

Ex. 4. Do and Make. "Elizabeth often made journeys…”

Put the correct forms of the verb "to do"or "to make" in the following sentences.

a) I think you have __ enough work for today.

b) Mary __ her homework very badly and had __ it again.

143. c)How many mistakes did you ___ in the dictation?

144. d) If you ___ too much noise the neighbours will call the police.

145. e)They ___ a lot of money and decided to retire to the seaside.

f) My mother has ___ a cake for tea. If you aren’t ___ anything this afternoon why don’t you come round?

Ex. 5. Look at this sentence: “By 1582 he was in London. . . “ Here by is a preposition of time meaning when (the time) comes.

Now complete the following putting the correct tense of the verbs in brackets.

1. If I (not arrive) by 8 p.m., please have dinner without me.

2. If the aeroplane leaves on time, we (to be) in London by lunchtime.

c) By the age of 28 William Shakespeare (to be married) for ten years.

146. d) By the time Elizabeth I came to the throne the English Renaissance (to reach) its height.

147. e) If the car (not to break down) they would have arrived by now.

148. f) “I told you that these letters (to have to) be typed by today.

Tudor Theatres. The first theatres, like the Globe and the Fortune, were built in the shape of inn-yards with three rows of balconies round a courtyard open to the sky, so as to use the daylight. Their stages stood in the open air. Most of the audience, however, sat under a roof or some sort of covering. Those who could not afford to pay for the seats stood in front, and on the sides of the stage. Since there were no lights, plays were performed in the after­noon. They attracted large crowds, which were sometimes hard to control. The audience was always noisy, playing dice and cards and the richest people were even allowed to sit on the stage and make comments. Acting was not considered a respectable profession and women were not allowed to act, so women's parts were played by young boys. The actors did not wear costumes but Tudor clothes.

The Romantic Movement. At the beginning of the nineteenth century a new sensibility called Romanticism devel­oped in Europe. In England there were two generations of Romantic writers; the first gen­eration included William Wordsworth and Samuel T. Coleridge, who produced the Lyrical Ballads (1789), Robert Bums, a Scottish poet, and William Blake, poet, painter and en­graver. Writers of the second generation included Lord George Byron, Percy B. Shelley and John Keats. They were influenced by the legends and mythology of oriental and me­dieval literature. A typical product of Romanticism was the historical novel, which mixed elements of the past with mystery and the marvelous. We have the first examples of his­torical novels with Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832). He started his career as poet but he reached success with such well known works as Waverly, Guy Mannering, Rob Roy and Ivanhoe. Lewis Carrol is the penname of Charles Lutwidge Dodgson (1832-1898), a mathematics professor at Oxford University. He became famous as a writer when he published Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. This novel tells the story of a little girl called Alice's, who dreams that, while she is running after a White Rabbit, she falls down a hole and enters a wonderful world populated with animals and things of every kind acting in a very strange way. She meets characters like the Duchess, the Cheshire Cat, the Mad Hatter, the March hare, the King and Queen of Hearts and Mock Turtle.

Ex. 6. Answer the following.

a) How did they illuminate the first theatres?

b) How did the audience behave?

c) Why weren't women allowed to act?

d) Who wrote the first historical nov­els?

e) What is a pen-name?

149. f) What influenced Byron, Shelley and Keats?

Ex. 7. Match the words with their definitions: theatre the people who watch stage to act audience the person who performs to perform the open area in front of the stage

pit theatrical performance

play role

part to clap one's hands

actor the area where the play is performed

to applaud the building where plays are performed

150. Ex. 8. Rewrite the summary of Alice's Adven­tures in Wonderland in the past tense. Be­gin like this: This novel tells the story of a little girl called Alice, who dreamed . . . .

Ex. 9. Complete the following sentences with the correct form of the verbs in brackets.

a) When your brother (arrived, will ar­rive, arrives, is arriving) __ he will be tired.

b) I shall wait here until you (would be, shall be, will be, are) __ ready.

c) If I had not called the fire brigade, the house (would have burned down, will burn down, has burned down)

d) I wish you (will come, are coming, came , were coming) __ to the dance tomorrow.

e) We would have helped if we (knew, had known, have known, were knowing) __ you were in trouble.

f) Peter has been in computers since he (was leaving, had left, left, has been leaving) __ the army.

g) This is the first time I (am visiting, visit, have visited, have been visit­ing) __ Paris.

Ex. 10. "To play" is used with nouns like cards, games, sports, and musical instru­ments. "To act" is used for performing in a play, film etc. Complete the following choosing between "to act" and "to play", in the correct tense.

a) I'm learning to __ the piano.

b) How many times a week do you __ football?

c) Lawrence Oliver __ beautifully in the play last night.

d) Let’s ___ that new card game you showed me.

151. I’d love to ___ in “A Midsummer Night’s Dream”.

152. The orchestra usually ___ in the pit.