Formal Style of Academic English

The style of English academic writing is formal. Its main characteristics are the absence of conversational features and the use of an appropriate academic vocabulary. Developing a command of formal style is extremely important for non-native speakers wishing to master the conventions of English academic discourse.

Formal academic English will normally avoid:

1. Contractions.

The research won't be continued until appropriate funding is secured.

The research will not be continued until appropriate funding is secured.

2. Interjections and hesitation fillers (i.e., um, well, you know; etc.).

Well, we will now consider the influence of sex hormones on stress response.

We will now consider the influence of sex hormones on stress response.

3. Addressing the reader directly.

You can see the data in Table 3.

The data can be seen in Table 3.

4. Phrasal verbs (although not always).

Researchers have found out that many mental illnesses are based on molecular defects.

Researchers have discovered that many mental illnesses are based on molecular defects.

5. Direct questions (although not always).

What can be done to improve the state of our economy?

We now need to consider what can be done to improve the state of our economy.

6. Adverbs in initial or final positions (the middle position is preferable).

Then it will be shown how teachers can utilize this method.

This work relies on previous research heavily.

It will then be shown how teachers can utilize this method.

This work heavily relies on previous research.

7. Inappropriate negative forms.

n o t . . . any no

The investigation didn't yield any new results.

The investigation yielded no new results.

8. Short forms of the words or slang.

This booklet describes the requirements and content of the university graduation exams.

This booklet describes the requirements and content of the university graduation examinations.

Active and passive sentences

A characteristic of academic writing is the use of passive sentence construction. Active sentence

Passive sentence

Active sentences focus on people (also known as actors or agents) doing things. The subject of the sentence doing something (as described by the verb). In the following example the University is the actor/agent. e.g. The University (subject) conducted (verb) the study in 2008. If the university conducting the study is the most important bit of information then having it first in the sentence draws attention to it. The active voice is the way we usually learn to construct sentences in English; it has the advantage of being clear and direct.

Passive sentences focus on the things being done, not on who is doing them. e.g. The study was conducted (verb) by the university in 2008. If the study itself is the most important bit of information then a passive voice puts it first. In situations where you want to be less direct and more tactful, use the passive voice.

Tense

Reports, essays and literature reviews tend to be written in the present tense, especially in the introductory sections. For example:

• This report analyses the…

• This literature review provides an overview and critical analysis of…

• Evidence, therefore, indicates that…

If you did practical research, then write the methodology, results and conclusions in the past tense:

• The equipment was calibrated prior to the experiment.

• Tension was applied to the bar and at x force it snapped.

• The results were analysed by…

Voice

Academic writing has an objective tone. A way of achieving this is to write in an impersonal voice. First Person
I argue that…	This essay argues that…
We researched the issue of…	The group researched the issue…
I used semi structured interviews as my methodology	The chosen methodology was semi structured interviews…*
After this I will analyse topic x	Subsequently, topic x will be analysed…*
I found that…	It was found that…*
We thought the results were…	The results appeared to be…
Second person …	becomes third person …
You can read further about this in Further discussion of this topic is found the work of Smith and Jones (2010).	Further discussion of this topic is found in the work of Smith and Jones (2010).
You may find it difficult to replicate this experiment	Replication of this experiment may be difficult
Your reading will be more effective if you have a study plan.	Use of a study plan will improve the effectiveness of one’s reading.

Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing puts the ideas of others into your own words. It restates the ideas in the original source and includes the same information/details. As long as you acknowledge your source it is NOT plagiarism.

Why paraphrase instead of quote?

• It is more effective because the essay flows when you use your own words.

• It helps resolve the problem of over-quoting.

• The process of paraphrasing assists you in gaining a fuller understanding of the original.

Original Text	Paraphrase – unacceptable	Paraphrase - acceptable
The development of successful marketing strategies depends to a large extent on the planner’s ability to segment markets. Unfortunately, this is not a simple process. Segmenting usually requires considerable management judgment and skill. Those marketers who have the necessary judgment and skill will have a real advantage over their competitors in finding profitable opportunities. (McCarthy, Perreault & McGuiggan 2000, p. 411)	Successful developing of marketing strategies is dependent to a great extent on the ability of the planner to segment markets. However, this process is difficult. Segmenting usually requires significant management judgment and skill. Only marketers who have the necessary judgment and skill will have a true advantage over their competitors in obtaining profitable opportunities (McCarthy, Perreault & McGuiggan 2000). This example follows the sentence structure of the original too closely and simply substitutes some of the words with synonyms.	According to McCarthy, Perreault and McGuiggan (2000), the planner’s level of competence in the complex procedure of the segmentation of markets is a deciding factor in the success of market strategy development. Thus, high levels of management assessment and aptitude are necessary for marketers to truly gain a competitive advantage in procuring lucrative opportunities. The sentence structure has been changed and words have been substituted
Informal Speaking - Expressing Opinion	Academic Writing – Expressing Opinion with evidence to support it	What is the difference?
Prescribing anti‐psychotic drugs to patients suffering from post‐operative dementia is harmful.	The fact that prescribing anti‐psychotic drugs to patients suffering from post‐operative dementia care is harmful has been supported by Matheson (2007). Watkins’* study indicated that recovery rates were 20% faster for patients given daily therapy in the form of specially designed mental exercises. (2010) *Can you find other authors and compare what they say about this issue? Do you think the ideas of the authors are valid?	Support your statements with evidence from readings, and cite them using the appropriate referencing guide. Synthesis ideas from a range of authors and makes critical judgements about them

Abbreviations are an important and expanding feature of contemporary English, widely used for convenience and space saving.

Types of abbreviation

Abbreviations take the form of shortened words, acronyms or other abbreviations, as shown below.

(a) Shortened words are often used without the writer being aware of the original form. ‘Bus’ comes from ‘omnibus’, which is hardly used in modern English. However, ‘refrigerator’ is still better in written English than the informal ‘fridge’. ‘Public house’ is now very formal (‘pub’ is acceptable), but ‘television’ or ‘TV’ should be used instead of the idiomatic ‘telly’.

(b) Acronyms are made up of the initial letters of a name or phrase (e.g. AIDS = Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome). They are pronounced as words.

(c) Other abbreviations are read as sets of individual letters. They include names of countries, organisations and companies (USA/ BBC/ IBM), and also abbreviations that are only found in written English 1EEE

2

3Some common abbreviations

AGM annual general meeting

BA Bachelor of Arts

BSc Bachelor of Sciences

CV curriculum vitae

DIY do-it-yourself

EU European Union

FE further education

GM genetically modified

GNP gross national product

HE higher education

RM human resource management

ICT information and communications technology

IMF International Monetary Fund

LLB Bachelor of Laws

MA Master of Arts

MSc Master of Science

PG Postgraduate

PGCE Postgraduate Certificate of Education

PhD Doctor of Philosophy

PLC public limited company

PR public relations

UCAS Universities and Colleges Admissions Service

UG undergraduate

UN United Nations

URL uniform resource locator (website address)

VC Vice-Chancellor

WTO World Trade Organisation

Abbreviations in writing

Certain abbreviations are found in all types of academic writing. They include:

anon. anonymous (no author)

asap as soon as possible

cf. compare

ed. editor/ edition

e.g. for example

et al. and others (used for giving names of multiple

authors)

Fig. figure (for labelling charts and graphs)

ibid. in the same place (to refer to source mentioned

immediately before)

i.e. that is

K thousand

NB. take careful note

nd. no date (i.e. an undated source)

op. cit. in the source mentioned previously

p.a. yearly (per annum)

pp. pages

PS postscript

re. with reference to

Academic adjectives

The following adjectives are best understood and learnt as opposites:

Inflation is an abstract concept.

The metaphorical use of the word ‘key’ is probably more common than its literal one.

The study of engineering is very relevant to architecture.

Her study of women in education was criticised for being too subjective.

In Europe, empirical research began in the sixteenth century.

1EEE