Academic vocabulary
Students wishing to develop their academic vocabulary should study the
Academic Word List (AWL). This is a list of 570 items commonly found
in academic texts across various disciplines, created by Averil Coxhead.
absolute
abstract
logical
metaphorical
precise
rational
relevant
subjective
theoretical
relative
concrete
illogical
literal
vague or approximate or rough
irrational
irrelevant
objective
practical or empirical or pragmatic
Another important feature of English academic writing is a tendency to choose more formal alternatives when selecting words of different parts of speech.
Verbs
English academic style makes use of formal verbs, often of Latin origin.
In Ukrainian textbooks, such verbs are usually referred to as "general scientific verbs" (Ukr. загальнонаукова лексика).
Below are the most frequently used "scientific verbs "
Verb Example of use
to adapt to arise
to conduct to characterise to clarify
to concentrate on to be concerned with to demonstrate
to determine to discriminate to establish to exhibit to focus on to generate
to hold to identify to imply to interact to interpret to manifest to overcome to propose to prove to recognise to relate to
to supplement
to undergo to yield
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the health system has been adapted from France a similar situation arises when we look at younger children the largest study was conducted in Finland developing countries are characterised by . . . the project was designed to clarify these contradictions that study concentrated on older children the programme is concerned primarily with . . . further research has demonstrated that few factors . . . the water content was experimentally determined a failure to discriminate between the two species the northern boundary was established first half of the patients exhibited signs of improvement her work focused on female managers a question which has generated a range of responses Newton’s second Law, F=ma, holds everywhere three main areas have been identified his absence implies a lack of interest understand how the two systems interact the result can be interpreted as a limited success as manifested in anti-social behaviour both difficulties were overcome in the first week they propose that social class is the main factor the use of solar power is proving successful he is now recognised as a leading expert the pattern was related to both social and physical factors the diet was supplemented with calcium and iodine the system underwent major changes in the 1980s both surveys yielded mixed results
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The language of caution
Caution is also needed to avoid making statements that are too simplistic:
Crime is linked to poor education.
Such statements are rarely completely true. There is usually an exception
that needs to be considered. Caution can be shown in several ways:
Crime may be linked to poor education. (modal verb)
Crime is frequently linked to poor education. (adverb)
Crime tends to be linked to poor education. (verb)
Using modifiers
Another way to express caution is to use quite, rather or fairly before an
adjective.
a fairly accurate summary
a rather inconvenient location
quite a significant discovery
The language of discussion
When discussing common ideas avoid personal phrases such as in my opinion or personally, I think . . .
Use impersonal phrases instead such as:
It is generally accepted that working from home saves commuting time . . .
It is widely agreed that email and the internet reduce reliance on an
office . . .
Most people appear to need face-to-face contact with colleagues . . .
It is probable that more companies will encourage working from
home . . .
The evidence suggests that certain people are better at self-management . . .
It can be argued that home-working encourages time-wasting
One view is that home-workers become isolated
Academic writing maintains an objective and scholarly tone. It is, therefore, important to adopt an appropriate point of view, that is to choose (or not to choose) personal pronouns (I or we) for framing a piece of writing. Traditionally, academic writing tends to avoid personal pronouns and shows preference toward impersonal style.
Cautious Writing
An important feature of English academic written discourse is a cautious manner of writing that is the avoidance of too definite statements or conclusions. The purpose of such a strategy is to be accurate and to protect the author from being criticized for possible errors or invalid claims. Cautious writing also allows for other opinions or points of view. The main linguistic ways of doing this are as follows.
By using modal verbs.
2. By using adjectives that express probability (in all examples below
the statements gradually weaken in strength).
Dinosaurs died out due to sudden climatic changes.
It is certain
It is likely
It is probable
It is possible
It is unlikely
that dinosaurs died out due to sudden climatic changes.
3. By using a there is construction with the word possibility.
There is
a strong possibility
a definite possibility
a slight possibility
that dinosaurs died out due to sudden climatic changes.
4. By using adverbs that express certainty and probability.
Definitely,
Undoubtedly,
Probably,
Possibly,
Presumably,
dinosaurs died out due to sudden climatic changes.
5. By using verb phrases that distance the writer from the statements or conclusions he/she makes.
Social scientists serve contradictory political and scientific values.
It seems
It appears
It would seem/appear
that social scientists often serve contradictory political and scientific values.
Social scientists seem to often serve contradictory political and scientific values.
Social scientists appear to often serve contradictory political and scientific values.
Social scientists tend to often serve contradictory political and scientific values.
6. By using quantity words.
A majority of social scientists often serve contradictory political and scientific
values.
A large number of social scientists often serve contradictory political and
scientific values.
Social scientists of many countries often serve contradictory political and
scientific values.
Some social scientists often serve contradictory political and scientific values.
A few social scientists often serve contradictory political and scientific values.
Collocations
Collocations are relatively stable word-combinations that occur regularly. Their knowledge and appropriate use is very important for successful academic writing in English.
status quo
implications
issues
scope
conclusions
account
clues
rise
granted
light
insights
emphasis
Logical Connectors
Logical connectors (transitional expressions) are linking words and phrases which establish the logical relationship between ideas within a sentence or between sentences. They also improve the flow of writing, that is a smooth movement from one idea or piece of information in a text to the next. Logical connectors are thus guideposts for readers that help them to better follow the text. As transitional expressions show various kinds of logical relations, they may be grouped according to their meaning and function.
Thus
In fact
That is why
Later
However accordingly consequently hence likewise overall although conversely however meanwhile regarding as despite in addition moreover similarly as a matter of fact due to in brief nevertheless since
as a result even though in conclusion nonetheless that is (i.e.)
as far as finally in contrast notwithstanding therefore
as long as firstly in fact on the contrary thus
as to for example in other words on the other hand whereas
at the same time for instance in spite of on the whole while
because of furthermore in this case otherwise yet
Latin Expressions
Like other European languages, academic English makes use of Latin abbreviations and expressions. You must have also met some of them while reading Ukrainian academic texts, where such expressions are easy to notice, because they are often written in the Roman alphabet.
Expression |
Full form |
Modern meaning
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A.D. a.m. cf. e.g et al. etc.
ibid.
i.e. loc. cit. N.B. op. cit. p.m. P.S.
viz. v s . |
Anno Domini ante meridiem confer exempli gratia et alii et cetera
ibidem
id est loco citato nota bene opere citato post meridiem post scriptum
videlicet versus |
in the year of our Lord before noon compare for example and other authors and other things; and so on the same as the previous reference that is to say in the place cited take note in the work cited after noon s o m e t h i n g a d d e d a f t e r t h e s i g n a t u r e i n a l e t t e r n a m e l y a g a i n s t
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Latin Expressions
Expression Meaning
a fortiori by a more convincing argument
a posteriori reasoning based on past experience
a priori reasoning that precedes experience
ab initio from the beginning
ab ovo from the beginning
acl hoc arranged for a particular purpose; not pre-arranged; informal
ad infinitum without limit; forever
(liter ego one's other self
bona fide genuine(ly), sincere(ly), in good faith
de facto existing by fact, not by law or right
de jure by right; according to law
ego I; individual perception or experience of oneself
errata list of errors, misprints, etc. in a printed book
erratum error in printing or writing
in situ in its original place
in vitro experiment conducted in a glass
m vivo in life; experiments conducted on living organisms
ipso facto by that very fact
per capita per head (e.g., per capita income)
per diem per day (e.g., expenses allowed each day)
per se something considered alone, by itself
post factum after something has happened
post-mortem made after death
pro rata in proportion
thus (placed in brackets to indicate that the preceding
word, statement, etc. is correctly quoted even though this
seems unlikely or is clearly incorrect)
New Lexical Tendencies in English
There are some new tendencies in the use of English you need to be aware of even though they affect the language in general. Knowledge of them is especially important for those who perform research in humanities and social sciences.
The first tendency considered here is the so-called politically correct language. This tendency, characteristic mostly of American English, consists in the use of euphemisms (mild, vague, and indirect words or phrases) that soften accurate meanings in accordance with socio-political values. Some examples of "politically correct" American English are given below.
Blacks, Negroes Indians foreign students poor blind handicapped or crippled mentally retarded stupid unable to deal with technical appliances
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Afro-Americans; Native Americans; international students; marginalized; visually challenged; differently abled; developmentally challenged; intellectually disadvantaged; technologically challenged.
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