Part II Choosing the Right Word: Semantics

COLLECTION OF WORDS

Here is my collection of Russian words that frequently create problems for the translator. There are three main reasons why certain words cause difficulties:

1. The meaning is so broad that it cannot be captured by one single English word. For example, наука has a broader meaning than its "traditional" translation, "science", and you need a lot of different English words to cover all the meanings of касса.

2. False friends - there is an English word that looks very similar, but has a different meaning (e.g. национальность, объект).

3. Collocations (словосочетания) - in every language, certain words always go together with other words as a matter of usage, and these phrases just have to be learned.

Occasionally two words in Russian need to be merged into one in English, e.g. ботинки и сапоги: boots. (Unless, of course, you are translating something like a patent application where precision is crucial.) Sometimes, on the other hand, one Russian word must be split into two in English, e.g. бабочки: butterflies and moths (дневные и ночные).

администрация

Where it means руководство (администрация компании, гостиницы, театра и т.п.), this should be translated management, not "administration". Administration can be used when администрация refers to органы власти (e.g. the Bush administration).

акт

This versatile Russian word has several meanings:

(1) report, statement, certificate

• акт оценки: valuation report

• акт сверки: reconciliation report

• приёмо-сдаточный акт: delivery and acceptance certificate

• акт о приёмке-сдаче работ: work acceptance/completion report/certificate

• акт об усыновлении (удочерении): adoption certificate

• акт разграничения балансовой принадлежности: statement on the division of assets (between balance sheets)

(2) deed, instrument

♦ передаточный акт: deed of transfer

(3) law, act

• подзаконный акт: sub-law; by-law

• нормативный акт: regulation

(4) act, action

♦ теракт: act of terrorism; terrorist attack

активизировать, активизация

These words can be a complete nightmare. Translations of the verb include intensify, step up (generally the most satisfactory), add/give momentum to, stir up, liven up, promote, make more active.

• активизировать работу: to step up work (on)

• ... активизируется: ... is gaining momentum, is being stepped up.

актуальность

There is no good noun for this in English (well, perhaps "topicality" or "relevance", but certainly not "actuality" - see the list of false friends'), so some rephrasing is necessary.

♦ Актуальность проблемы состоит в том, что...: The problem is a particularly pressing one because... / What makes this problem so pressing is that... / This issue is especially topical given that...

ассортимент

This usually means a range of goods rather than an "assortment".

• широкий ассортимент товаров: a wide range/choice of goods

• грузинские вина в ассортименте: a range/variety of Georgian wines (not "wine in assortment")

богатый

To describe a person, wealthy or well-off sound better than "rich". Rich can often be used in the figurative sense, but not always:

• богатая культура: a rich culture

• богатый политический опыт: a wealth of political experience

борьба

This word is used rather more frequently than struggle or fight are in English.

• классовая борьба: the class struggle

• борьба с преступностью: crime prevention; the fight against crime

• борьба с терроризмом: the war on terror(ism)

• меры по борьбе с...: anti-... measures (if what follows is short); measures to combat ... (if it is too long)

вести

To lead, conduct, handle, carry on, run.

• вести дела: to do business; (в суде) conduct a case

• вести переговоры: to negotiate; conduct negotiations

• вести протокол: to keep/take minutes

• вести реестр: to maintain a register

♦ Работа ведется: Work (on...) is (being) done, or is under way, or is in progress, взаимный

Mutual and reciprocal are often good translations; just bear in mind that they sound rather more formal in English than взаимный does in Russian, and are not so frequently used.

♦ их взаимные влияние и общение: their influence on and contact with each other

власть

As an abstract noun, this means power, but in Russian власть is often used to mean the authorities.

• исполнительная власть: the executive

• законодательная власть: the legislature

• судебная власть: the judiciary

• советская власть: Soviet rule

внести

Here are some common phrases:

• внести вклад: (в банк) to make a deposit; (в уставный капитал) make a contribution

• внести изменение (в документ): to make (not "insert") an amendment; to amend a document

• внести предложение: to make a suggestion; put forward a proposal

возможность

This very common word can cause at least three difficulties!

(1) It can be hard to choose between possibility and opportunity. The Oxford English Dictionary defines a possibility as "a thing that may happen or may be the case", while an opportunity is "a set of circumstances that make it possible to do something". "Opportunity" also has a positive connotation (business/employment opportunities, etc.). [EXAMPLES!!]

♦ равенство возможностей: equal opportunities

I would avoid the word "chance" altogether. But don't forget capability:

♦ финансовые возможности инвестора: an investor's financial capability

(2) Возможность is far more frequently used in Russian than "possibility" is in English.

• (не) иметь возможность сделать: to be (un)able to do sth. (not "(not) to have the possibility")

• He было возможности...: It was impossible to... We were unable to... These are more natural than "there was no possibility of...", which sounds very formal.

(3) Possibility must be followed by of + gerund, not an infinitive. Opportunity,

however, takes the infinitive.

• возможность делать: the possibility of doing sth. or opportunity to do sth.

• возможность регистрации устава: the possibility of registering the charter (not "of registration of the charter")

восточный

A very frequently-used word in Central Asia, but it can only be translated Eastern, not "Oriental", which refers to the Far East (China, Japan, etc.).

в первую очередь

[Explanation!!] Primarily, mostly, largely, above all.

♦ За это время наша компания приобрела около 220 клиентов. В первую очередь - это бизнесмены, дипломаты: During that time our company has gained around 220 customers, mostly businessmen and diplomats.

в том числе

Should be translated comprising if what follows comprises ALL of the items under discussion, and including if what follows is a part of it.

♦ Сейчас «КазМунайГаз» ежегодно добывает только порядка 1,4 млрд. кубометров газа, в том числе ОАО «Узеньмунайгаз» - 1,3 млрд. кубометров, ОАО «КазахОйл-Эмба» - 100 млн. 938 тыс. куб. метров: KazMunaiGaz currently produces only about 1.4 billion cubic metres of gas annually, comprising 1.3 billion cubic metres produced by Uzenmunaigaz OJSC and 100,938,000 cubic metres by KazakhOil-Emba.

глубокий

Again, deep can sometimes be used figuratively, but profound is more common. There's also in-depth (for analysis, etc.)

♦ глубокие изменения: profound changes

город

Town or city? In Britain, a city is a town that has a cathedral and a bishop. In the US... [??]. Towns tend to be smaller, so I would not say "small city", but:

♦ небольшой/малый город: small town

Neither word needs to be used in constructions like город Алматы (simply Almaty): see the section on "Explanatory" Nouns.

гость

A guest only if he or she is staying at your home or in a hotel. In a restaurant, he's a customer, and in most other situations, he's a visitor. This word is used much more frequently in English than посетитель is in Russian, and does not sound unfriendly.

♦ гости столицы: visitors to the capital

детский

Usually children's, but remember that a child is called a baby until he or she is about one year old. Therefore:

♦ детское питание: baby food

деятельность

When used of a company, operations or business is usually better than activity.

• коммерческая (предпринимательская) деятельность: business

• основная деятельность: core business

• общество, осуществляющее свою деятельность в...: a company operating in...

The word деятельность should not be translated if it is preceded by an -ing noun, which in itself connotes activity:

• аудиторская деятельность: auditing

• банковская деятельность: banking

• брокерская деятельность: broking

• дилерская деятельность: dealing

• кредитная деятельность: lending

• рекламная деятельность: advertising

диплом с отличием

This should not be translated "honours degree" because virtually all degrees in the UK and US are honours degrees; you would have to get all двойки to end up with an ordinary degree! The equivalents to с отличием are first class in the UK and summa/magna cum laude in the US. A good general translation of диплом с отличием is honours degree with distinction.

дополнительно

This is more widely used than the English word "additionally". Generally it is best translated also, in addition; but it can also have the meaning in due course.

иметь

Usually have, but here are some useful phrases:

• иметь в (на праве) собственности: to own

• иметь лицензию/свидетельство: to hold a licence/certificate

• имеется в наличии: available

• если таковой имеется: if any

исполнитель

This word covers a multitude of sins in Russian: contractor, supplier, service provider, responsible employee. The one thing it does not mean is "performer" (an actor, dancer or other entertainer).

At the end of government correspondence we often find Исп.: followed by the name of the bureaucrat who drafted the letter. The best translation for this is Prepared by: or Drafted by:

исторический

Historic describes a positive quality: a(n) historic event. Historical just means "pertaining to history".

касса

This useful word must have been borrowed from the French "caisse": there is no single English word that will cover it. In shops it may be known as the cash-desk or till, but the sign above it usually reads Please pay here; in a supermarket it is called the checkout; in a bank, the counter; at a railway or bus station, the ticket office; and at a theatre, the box office. If you are translating a sign for a public place, the best solution is probably Tickets.

Касса can also mean cash, and the machine where cash is kept in a shop, in which case it is called a cash register or till. А сберегательная касса is a savings bank.

клиенты

Banks, shops and restaurants have customers; law firms, accountants, translators (and prostitutes) have clients.

командировка

For the plural of this word, business travel sounds more natural than "business trips".

♦ Он - в командировке: He is away on business.

It can also have the meaning of secondment, when a person is assigned to another company for a temporary period.

A journalist does not go on a "business trip", but an assignment, коллега

A colleague is someone you work with personally. Зарубежные коллеги (воинов), therefore, would be soldiers' foreign counterparts, not "colleagues". Another possibility is fellow- (fellow-journalists, etc.).

космос, космонавт

Space (no article), not "cosmos", and astronaut rather than "cosmonaut" (although cosmonaut is sometimes used specifically for the Soviet cosmonauts).

кредитор

Can be translated creditor if a person or company, but more often lender if a bank or financial institution.

ликвидация

Not always "liquidation", but remedy or elimination of defects (if your text is legal and your reader is a lawyer, you can use cure); clean-up after accidents; abandonment of oil wells; and liquidation (at last!) or winding-up of companies.

молодежь

The best translation is young people; "youth" sounds very old-fashioned. Similarly, молодежный = young people's.

наличие

Some phrases:

• (нет) в наличии: (un)available

• при наличии средств: if funds are available

• при наличии кворума: if (the meeting is) quorate

However, наличие does not always mean "availability". Availability implies that a thing is at one's disposal, not just existing. Usually sentences containing наличие need to be rephrased:

♦ [Russian??]: The company must have at least three specialists on its staff, направление

When it does not literally mean direction, this word can be a real headache. It is closer to aspect or area:

• Обучение проводится по следующим направлениям: журналистика, Training is provided in the following areas: reporting, ...

• Еще одно важное направление государственной политики - развитие инфраструктуры туризма.: Another important aspect of state policy is the development of tourist infrastructure/facilities.

население

This word should only be translated population if it refers to all the inhabitants of a particular place (usually used in a more formal, statistical sense). If it means ordinary people in general, the community, use the (general) public:

• Какова численность населения Китая?: What is the population of China?

• местное население: the local population

• [EXAMPLES!!]

• потребности народного хозяйства и населения в природном газе: industrial and domestic (or household) demand for natural gas

наука, научный

These words are often incorrectly translated as "science", "scientific". The English word "science" did originally mean knowledge in general, but its meaning has become narrower over the centuries. In modern English, science now covers only the physical and natural sciences: physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, medicine, etc. Other subjects such as history, literature and foreign languages are called arts or humanities. Наука, therefore, is best translated scholarship, and научный scholarly or academic, unless the context indicates otherwise. See also under ученый.

♦ научно-исследовательский институт: research institute ("scientific" is understood)

национальный, национальность, нация

It is very important to remember that the English word "nation" usually means a nation-state (государство) rather than a people (нация), and "nationality" is a synonym for "citizenship". Therefore, национальность should be translated ethnic origin or ethnic group, not "nationality" (= гражданство). The word "national" can only be used for things that pertain to the whole state:

• национальная валюта: the national currency

• but: национальная кухня: (traditional/typical) Russian/Kazakh food

♦ многонациональная страна: a multicultural/multi-ethnic country (Note that the word "multinational" usually applies to companies: транснациональная компания = a multinational.)

For национальное блюдо, I would say "a traditional Russian/Kazakh dish", because there can be only ONE "national dish" in English. Curry has now replaced fish and chips as the national dish of Britain (this isn't just my opinion - it was Tony Blair who said it!).

нормальный

If you have read this far, you will not be surprised to learn that this word does not always mean "normal".

♦ (не)нормальный человек: a decent (deranged, insane) person

♦ Одень шапочку нормально!: Put your hat on properly!

нормативный

The word "normative" sounds most unnatural and should be avoided. Нормативный has two meanings: regulatory and standard.

• нормативный акт/документ: regulatory act, regulation

• нормативная стоимость: standard cost

объект

This word has two main meanings:

(1) a facility (industrial, etc.):

• объекты коммунально-бытового назначения: amenities

• объекты социальной сферы: social infrastructure (or social facilities)

(2) an object, in the sense of the object of an action (cf. субъект). However, English rarely uses the word "object" in this case. For example:

• объекты интеллектуальной собственности: intellectual properly (just that!)

• объект налога: a taxable item

• объект преступления: the target of a crime

• объект приватизации: (in future) facility to be privatized; (in past) privatized facility

• объект природы: natural feature; natural asset

• объекты флоры и фауны: plants and animals

In a few cases the following construction can work:

♦ субъекты и объекты управления: the managers and the managed

однокомнатная квартира

In Britain and the US we count the number of bedrooms in a house or flat (apartment), not the rooms, so а двухкомнатная квартира is a one-bedroom flat. So what is an однокомнатная? A studio flat/apartment.

одноразовый, многоразовый

Not "one-time" and "many-time": disposable and reusable (or recyclable). Or you

can specify the material from which the items are made:

• одноразовая посуда: plastic/disposable plates and cups

• многоразовые подгузники: cotton nappies (Am. diapers)

ознакомиться, ознакомление

You cannot "get acquainted" with a document or a situation, only with people. "Familiarize oneself with" does not sound English either. We would be more likely to say read, review, study, learn about. Ознакомление can be translated review, examination, inspection.

♦ ознакомиться с документом: to review a document, оперативность

Prompt attention/response; efficiency.

♦ Ценим оперативность Вашего ответа: Thank you for responding so promptly. / We appreciate your prompt response.

(A polite cliché used to close English business letters is "Thank you for your prompt attention to this matter" - before the recipient has actually done anything. It means "Get on with it!")

особенность

Bear in mind that the word "peculiarity" has come to mean oddity, strangeness. Although "peculiarity" would probably be fine for Особенности национальной охоты, for most purposes (specific) feature or (particular) aspect are better translations.

♦ Каковы особенности ведения бизнеса XYZ International?: What is special about the way XYZ International operates?

острый

Dictionaries give sharp, acute, and keen (eye), but here are some useful collocations (which are really just a question of usage, it seems to me):

• острая бедность: severe poverty

• острая борьба: a tough struggle

• острая конкуренция: fierce/strong competition

• острое отправление: acute poisoning

♦ острый чили соус: hot chili sauce (острые блюда: hot/spicy food) осуществить

To effect, implement, undertake, carry out; but note the following:

• осуществить инвестицию (платёж): to make an investment (a payment)

• осуществить право: to exercise a right

• осуществить правосудие: to administer justice

• осуществиться за счёт государства: to be funded by the state

• общество, осуществляющее свою деятельность в...: a company operating in...

Often this verb can be combined with the noun that follows:

♦ осуществить координацию: to coordinate

• осуществить маркетинг: to market a product (but if there is no object: to carry out/do marketing)

• осуществить надзор (над): to supervise

ответственность

The usual meaning of this word is responsibility, but in legal documents it is likely to mean liability (материальная ответственность), or sometimes accountability

(подотчетность).

• возлагать ответственность за... на...: to make sb. responsible for sth.

• нести ответственность (за): to be liable (for)

• привлечь к ответственности: to call sb. to account

• привлечь к уголовной ответственности: to prosecute sb.; institute criminal proceedings against sb.

• общество с ограниченной ответственностью: limited liability company

• солидарная ответственность: joint and several liability

отдых

This Russian word is broader than the English rest. We only rest when we are tired, and we don't engage in any activity while doing so! Отдых meaning "not working" can be translated relaxation, recreation or leisure.

• Остается ли время для отдыха с семьей?: Do you have any spare time to relax (not "have a rest") with your family?

• время отдыха (на работе): break; rest period

• дом отдыха: holiday centre/resort

• комната отдыха: common room ("rest-room" is American English for the toilet)

отечественный

The best translation for this word is Kazakhstani, Russian or whatever. Domestic can often be used, but be aware that the word also means домашний, бытовой (бытовые приборы = domestic appliances), so is inappropriate in some contexts. "Home" should definitely be avoided.

отсутствие

A person can be absent, but a thing cannot:

♦ Машинисту запрещается включать агрегат при отсутствии штатных деталей и ограждений: The operator may not switch on the unit if any of the standard parts or guards are missing (not "absent").

The words lack and missing have a negative connotation:

• Информация по... отсутствует.: There is no information on... (neutral)

• из-за отсутствия информации: due to the lack of information (implication: we need it)

открытый, открыть Usually open, but not always:

• открытое лицо: bare/uncovered face

• открытая стоянка: open-air car park (Am. parking lot)

• Гольф открыл мне новый мир: Golf has opened up a new world for me.

официальный

This word should be omitted in conjunction with a capital city, meaning the centre of power of a country, as in English the meaning is clear from the context:

♦ официальная Москва: Moscow

оформить, оформление

Another verb with a broad meaning: to prepare, process, issue, file, formalize, register, document...

• оформить визу: to issue a visa

• оформить заявку: to file an application

• оформить документы: to prepare/process documents/papers

• оформление подарков: gift wrapping (service)

The best translations are clearly and obviously. "Apparently" should not be used. Although, confusingly, the adjective "apparent" can indeed mean obvious, the adverb "apparently" has come to mean "as far as I can see, as far as is apparent to me". The Oxford English Dictionary notes that this word is "used by speakers or writers to avoid committing themselves to the truth of what they are saying" (almost like "supposedly" and "allegedly"). Many translators like "evidently", but this word carries the same implications as "apparently" (though not to the same extent): it sounds subjective.

♦ Очевидно, что... Clearly,...

памятник

A monument is a building, statue, or other fairly large memorial structure, whereas памятник has a much wider meaning. If it is an item found in an archaeological dig, for example, we could call it a treasure or find. Some common phrases:

• памятник архитектуры: architectural landmark

• памятник культуры: cultural treasure

• памятник природы: natural wonder

платный, платность

This is a difficult word. Possibilities include commercial, chargeable, fee-based, for a fee, requiring payment... but not "paid", which means оплаченный.

• Обследование у специалистов всегда платное: There is always a charge for examination by a specialist. (Informal: You always have to pay to see a specialist.)

• платный туалет??: I think all public toilets are платные in Britain!

• платность (ресурсов): need to pay (for resources); availability (of resources) for a price/fee

позволить

Enable is a broader and therefore more useful word than allow and permit, which imply that someone in authority gave permission:

♦ Это [диалог и согласие] и позволило стране стать связующим звеном между Востоком и Западом.: This (was what) enabled the country to become a connecting link between East and West. (No one gave permission.)

If there is no object in the Russian original, I find make it possible is a useful translation: see the note on Verbs That Must Be Followed by an Object for more examples.

поздравить

You can only congratulate someone on something they have achieved, not on a holiday.

• Примите поздравления по поводу Вашего вступления в должность Генерального директора.: Congratulations on being made General Director! (or, more formally, Please accept our congratulations on the occasion of your appointment as General Director.)

• Поздравляем с Новым годом!: Wishing you (a merry Christmas and) a happy New Year! Best wishes for the New Year!

подлежать

In many cases this verb can be conveyed with to be + an adjective ending in -able. Otherwise, to be subject (or liable) to is a safe option.

• подлежащий выплате (вычету): payable (deductible)

• подлежать обложению налогом: to be taxable

• Товары возврату не подлежат.: Goods are not refundable.

• подлежащий преследованию: liable to prosecution

• Цена контракта не подлежит корректировке.: The contract price is not subject to adjustment.

получатель

Recipient (or payee, платежеполучатель), not "receiver", which means управляющий конкурсной массы.

Note that получение is receipt (not "receiving" or "reception"), получить

Receive if the object was given; obtain if the recipient had to make some effort to obtain it. Get is colloquial and should be avoided in formal documents.

• получить доход: to receive/gain/derive income

• получить прибыль: to make/generate a profit

• получить заём: to take out/obtain a loan

• получить независимость: to gain independence

Note that получение is receipt (not "receiving" or "reception").

предложение

A proposal sounds formal, a suggestion less so. А предложение in financial terms (e.g. to buy or sell) is an offer; a prospective buyer's offer at an auction or tender is a bid.

♦ внести предложение: to make a suggestion; put forward a proposal; (at a formal meeting) table a motion; move

предложить

To propose sounds formal, to suggest less so. In financial terms (meaning to buy or sell) we say offer; to make an offer at an auction or tender is to bid. Note that the verbs propose and suggest must be followed by a gerund (or new phrase), not an infinitive:

♦ Он предложил подписать договор.: He suggested signing (or: that we sign) a contract (not "He suggested to sign...").

предпринимательство

Believe it or not, in English we say enterprise rather than "entrepreneurship". I know it also means предприятие, but somehow we don't get confused...

предоставить

The verb submit is very formal. It should only be used in connection with government agencies, registering bodies, etc. a client, company or institute would provide you with documents. For internal office memos and notes, use the verb give (it is not as informal as дать).

♦ предоставить кредит: to grant or advance a loan предусмотреть

If the subject is a law or regulation, provide (for), stipulate, lay down and contemplate are good translations; if it is a plan or project, less formal words are involve and envisage. With an impersonal verb, it may be possible to use a construction with is/are to.

• Пунктом 7 соглашения предусмотрено, что...: Clause 7 of the agreement provides that...

• В плане предусмотрен целый комплекс мероприятий, направленных на укрепление...: The plan involves/envisages a range of measures to strengthen (or: aimed at strengthening)...

• Предусмотрено введение в штаты военных подразделений психологов и социологов.: Psychologists and sociologists are to be introduced onto the staff of military subdivisions.

привлекать

Beware of the word "attract"; it has a much narrower meaning than привлекать does.

• привлекать инвесторов: to attract investors

• привлекать специалистов: to recruit/hire/engage/retain/employ/involve specialists

• привлекать средства: to raise funds

• привлечь к ответственности: to call sb. to account; hold sb. liable

• привлечь к уголовной ответственности: to prosecute sb.; institute criminal proceedings against sb.

• [Russian??]: to involve people in the decision-making process

приложение, приложить

Schedule (used in legal documents), supplement, annex(e), exhibit.

A document that is to be faxed is an attachment and will be attached to the fax.

A document that will be sent by post is an enclosure and will be enclosed with a letter

(in an envelope).

♦ Written at the end of a letter: Приложение: копия Приложении 6 на 2 страницах: Enclosure: copy of Schedule 6 (2 pages).

проводить

• проводить выборы (собрание, переговоры): to hold elections (a meeting, negotiations/talks; or to negotiate)

• проводить инспекцию (расследование, экспертизу): to conduct an inspection (investigation, expert examination)

• проводить политику: to pursue a policy

• проводить в жизнь: to put into practice

• проводить в действие: to give effect to

• проводить время: to spend time

• проводить сумму по счету: to enter/record an amount in an account

This verb should often not be translated as such; see the section on Translating Nouns as Verbs.

♦ Определение срока проводится...: The period shall be defined...

производить

(1) To produce, manufacture - you know about that. The tricky bit is (2) to carry out, effect, do, make, and (surprise, surprise) often not translated.

• производить оплату: to make (a) payment

• производить оценку: to evaluate; assess sth.; carry out an evaluation/assessment

• производить расходы: to incur expenses

• производить экспертизу: to conduct an expert examination

работать

Not always "work": a company operates, while a shop is open:

• работать в убыточном режиме: to operate at a loss

• работать безубыточно: to break even

• Магазин работает с 9 до 18: Open from 9 am to 6 pm.

разные

[When is this different and when various?? - различные]

♦ Разное (on agenda): Any other business (AOB)

разовый

One-off or single, not "one-time", which means бывший and sounds slightly pejorative.

♦ разовый платеж: lump-sum payment расти, рост

Note that prices and the standard of living cannot "grow"; they rise,

реализовать

Very rarely "realize", which nowadays usually means to understand (Я понял, что... I realized that...):

• реализовать задачу: to achieve an objective

• реализовать право: to exercise a right

• реализовать принцип: to put a principle into practice

• реализовать проект: to implement a project

• Реализуются экологические проекты.: Environmental projects are underway.

• реализовать товары: to sell goods

реальный

Not necessarily "real"; this word has three meanings: (1) realistic, viable, workable;

(2) actual, genuine, real, real-life; and (3) business.

♦ реальный сектор экономики: (??)

ребёнок

Remember that a child is called a baby until he or she is about one year old. Therefore:

♦ рождение ребёнка: the birth of a baby резкий

Sharp, harsh, acute, abrupt, sudden, drastic, dramatic [how to choose??].

♦ резкое падение: a sharp/dramatic decline

республиканский

This word should not be translated "Republican", as this is a political party in the US; in the UK, it's a person who wants to abolish the monarchy; and in Northern Ireland, someone who wants political union with the Irish Republic. Is that enough reasons?! Either Republic or national (before the noun) or of the Republic (after the noun) may be used.

♦ республиканский бюджет, республиканская пресса: the national budget, the national press

решение

Decision is the usual, everyday meaning. A resolution is a more formal or legal decision made by a company body or state agency. Судебное решение = judgment or ruling (or award if it is an arbitration court).

• решение вопросов: the resolution of issues

• решение задачи: the achievement of an objective; accomplishment of a task

• решение проблемы: the/a solution to a problem

• решение спора: settlement of a dispute

• принять решение: to take/make a decision; decide (on); (в суде) to give/render a judgment; (на собрании акционеров) to adopt a resolution

• решение по делу: judgment in/on a case

• по решению облсуда 7 августа: by a judgment of the oblast court given on 7 August

решить

Standing alone, this word usually means decide (or in more formal contexts such as shareholders' meetings, resolve). Here are some common collocations:

• решить вопрос: (if everything has been settled) to resolve/settle an issue/a matter; (further options if the matter is ongoing) to address/deal with/tackle an issue

• решить задачу: to achieve an objective; accomplish a task

• решить проблему: to solve a problem

• решить спор: to settle a dispute

• Решили: (in minutes, etc.): Resolved:

• Суд решил...: The court held...

• Судья решил дело в пользу ответчика: The judge found in favour of the defendant, or Judgment was given to the respondent.

рубрика

• This is a (regular) feature. When a journalist is given space every week to write about his or her own opinions, it is called a column

салаты

Russian салаты, eaten as а первое блюдо, are what we would call starters or appetizers. А салат can be various chopped things in mayonnaise, whereas the English word "salad" conjures up mostly lettuce, tomatoes, cucumbers, etc. - what in Russian is called свежаке овощи. (Most restaurants translate this as "fresh vegetables", which is very misleading because to us this means the vegetables will be cooked.)

санитарный день

If this is a sign on the door, I would translate it "Closed for cleaning". Otherwise, some sort of explanation is needed: "The shop was closed all day for cleaning."

служебный

Although служба often means service, служебный can rarely be translated "service", as it usually refers to employment/business/work. If служебный does pertain to service, the usual English adjective is official:

• служебная виза: business visa

• служебная машина: company car

• служебный телефон: work telephone number

• служебная тайна: official secret

• для служебных отметок: for official use only

• при исполнении служебных обязанностей: while on duty; in the course of his/her employment duties

собственность

If собственность means the concept, it should be translated ownership. It should be translated property if it refers to a tangible thing or things.

♦ форма собственности: form of ownership

♦ государственная собственность: state property (i.e. assets owned by the state) создать

Not always to create; organizations are founded, established or set up.

• создать рабочие места: to create jobs

• создать общество: to found a company

• создать комиссию, фонд: to establish or set up a commission or fund сообщить

To tell, inform, notify (and don't forget to say whom you are telling, informing or notifying; see the Verbs chapter), advise, report, announce.

состав

This can sometimes be translated membership or composition; but often it should be left out:

• состав комитета: members of the committee

• в составе команды: as part of the team

♦ В состав комитета вошли политические, деловые и спортивные лидеры: The committee includes leading figures from the worlds of politics, business and sport.

составить

See the note on The Verb To Be in the Verbs section.

срок

This should be translated term if it means the term of an agreement or loan. Otherwise, "term" is best avoided because it also means "condition" and this may cause confusion. Frequently period, sometimes duration, is best. Deadline, time limit or due date can be used if the word срок refers to a date rather than a period of time. Sometimes it can be left out altogether.

• (на) срок до трёх лет: (for) a period of up to three years

• в течение срока 60 дней: within 60 days (or a period of 60 days or a 60-day period)

• ГКО срока 6 месяцев: six-month state treasury bills

• заём сроком на 10 лет: ten-year loan

• со сроком погашения в 1999 году: (notes) due 1999

• лишение свободы на срок до 2 лет: up to two years' imprisonment

субъект

As with объект, this word can give the translator a real headache. It means the subject (i.e. doer) of an action; the trouble is that English speakers rarely express themselves in this way. Possible solutions include entity, person, participant, agent, party.

• субъект естественной монополии: natural monopolist

• субъект малого предпринимательства: small business

• субъект правонарушения: offender

• субъект преступления: perpetrator of a crime

• субъект приватизации: privatizing agency

• субъект Российской Федерации: constituent member/entity of the Russian Federation

телефон

Where this means номер телефона, we have to say telephone number in English; "telephone" will not be clear.

технология

Use technique, not "technology", if the word refers to something done with the hands, e.g. cooking or crafts.

♦ высокая технология выделки материи, войлока, кожа: advanced techniques for

участвовать

This verb is very frequently used in Russian - more so than participate in English, bur this is a perfectly good translation, as are take part and be involved (in). However:

• участвовать в конкурсе: to enter a competition

• активно участвовать: to take an active part (in)

участник

Usually participant is fine (although more common in Russian than in English), but участник is used rather more widely:

• участник договора: party to an agreement

• участники дорожно-транспортного происшествия: those involved in the accident

♦ участник торгов: bidder; (на бирже, рынке ценных бумаг) trader

ученый

This word is often incorrectly translated as "scientist". As the entry for наука above explains, in modern English, the word "science" covers only the physical and natural sciences: physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, medicine, etc. Other subjects such as history, literature and foreign languages are called arts or humanities. Therefore, ученый is best translated scholar or academic, unless the context indicates otherwise:

• Зарубежные ученые считают "Авесту" персоязычным памятником,: Foreign scholars consider the Avesta to be a work of Persian literature. (Here the ученые are linguists or historians.)

• Ученые считают, что человек способен сохранять в своей памяти все увиденное и услышанное, начиная с 4-5-летного возраста.: Scientists believe that we can store in our memories everything that we have seen or heard from the age of four or five onwards. (In this sentence the ученые are biologists, so scientists is correct.)

факт

Often instance.

♦ факты разглашения: instances of disclosure

честно говоря

The traditional translation of this seems to be "frankly speaking". I'm not saying this expression doesn't exist, but we are far more likely to say quite honestly or to be honest; or perhaps (quite) frankly (without the "speaking").

численность

Often number, but sometimes left out.

• численность работников: number of employees

• Какова численность населения Китая?: What is the population of China? экономический

Always translate this as economic, not "economical", which means экономный, эффективный

Businesses and people are efficient; methods and other abstract things are effective [check this!!].

♦ эффективности демократических форм управления: the effectiveness of democratic forms of governance

SOME FALSE FRIENDS

Russian	Correct translation		NOT...!
академик	academician		academic (= anyone who lectures and/or researches in higher education)
аккуратный	(neat and) tidy; proper неаккуратный: untidy; messy; careless		accurate (= точный)
актуальный	topical; relevant; current; urgent; pressing (problem)		actual (актуальный has the same meaning as the French actuel)
ангина	tonsillitis		angina (heart disease)
артист	actor, actress, dancer, singer (depending on the context)		artist (= художник); артист comes from the French artiste
бандит	gangster		bandit (found in deserts??)
баптизм	the Baptist Church		baptism (= крещение)
батарея	radiator		battery (= аккумулятор, батарейка)
бисквит	sponge (cake)		biscuit (Brit, for печенье)
вариант	version; option		variant (this word is rarely used)
декад	ten days		decade (= ten years)
дислокация	location; stationing		dislocation (a medical condition!)
иллюминатор	porthole		illuminator (to illuminate = освещать)
инвалид	disabled person (pi. disabled people)		invalid (pejorative)
инициативный	pro-active		initiative (a noun, инициатив)
интеллигент	an intellectual		intelligent (adj., = умный)
кекс	fruit cake		cake (This general word covers all sorts of cake - торт, пирожное, бисквит, and yes, кекс.)
контроль, контролировать	(usually) monitor, monitoring, check		control (except quality control and passport control)
концепция	(if a document) blueprint		concept
корректировка(на индекс инфляции)	adjustment (for inflation)		correction
корректный	proper		correct (= правильный)
коттедж	detached house		cottage (a modest dwelling in the countryside)
лунатик	sleepwalker		lunatic (= сумасшедший)
мастер	craftsman; professional?		master (usually = хозяин)
методист	methodologist		Methodist (a member of a Protestant denomination which split from the Church of England in the 19th century)
минимальный	minimum	minimal (= very small)
митинг	demonstration; rally	meeting (= an ordinary встреча)
мораль	morals	morale (= mood)
национальность	ethnic origin (see the entry in the previous section)	nationality (= гражданство)
нервный	irritable; highly-strung?	nervous (= anxious, scared)
ниппель	valve	nipple (= сосок)
оборотная сторона	back; reverse	back side (= задница)
оккупант	occupier	occupant (= someone peacefully living in a house or apartment)
оперативный	(1) prompt; efficient; (2) operational	operative (= действующий, резолютивный, or, as a noun, a CIA operative!)
орган	agency (госорган); body (of a company)	organ (this word can be used if it means a newspaper, as in орган КПСС = the Communist Party organ (mouthpiece). Note, however, that it carries the same ambiguity as the Russian член...)
памфлет	lampoon	pamphlet (= брошюра)
перспективы	outlook (for); prospects (for) (в перспективе = in the long term)	perspective (= мировоззрение?)
перспективный	long-term; promising	as above
презервативы	condoms	preservatives (= консерванты). Another word Russian has borrowed from French.
продукты (еда)	food; groceries	products (any items produced by a company). Also avoid "foodstuffs".
реализация	sale; implementation	The word "realization" does have these meanings, but is now rarely used in any sense other than "осознание", and interestingly this meaning is now beginning to pollute the French language from which we presumably borrowed the word.
симпатичный	nice; attractive; likeable	sympathetic
симпатия	liking (for sb.)	sympathy (for) (= сочувствие (к))
сквер	public garden	square (= площадь)
скотч	sticky tape; Scotch tape	Scotch (= whisky!)
скутер	outboard motor-boat	scooter (= мотороллер)
смокинг	dinner jacket (Am. tuxedo)	smoking (- курение), and not even a smoking jacket! Again, the French borrowed this word and got it wrong.
спортсмен	athlete; sporty person; person who likes sport	sportsman (this generally refers to hunting, shooting and fishing)
турнепс	swede	turnips (= репы)
фантазия	imagination	fantasy
фокус	trick	focus
фурнитура	accessories??	furniture (= мебель)
хоккей	ice-hockey	hockey (- хоккей на траве) - except in Canada
цензура	censorship	censure (= критика)
экспертиза	expert examination or expert committee	expertise (= skill or knowledge)
электрик	electrician	electric (= электрический)
энергетический	energy	energetic
юбилей	anniversary (sometimes birthday)	jubilee (this word has limited use)
happy end	happy ending	!

In addition to скотч, there are other brand names that have been adopted into Russian but not English:

• ксерокс: photocopier (not "Xerox")

• памперсы: disposable nappies (Am. diapers), or disposables (not "Pampers") English does, of course, have many other words which were originally brand names: aspirin, biro (ballpoint pen), hoover (properly "vacuum cleaner") and so on.

Part III