6. The sentence: the problem of definition and classification.

Logical, psychological, phonetic and grammatical approaches to the definition of a sentence.

The sentence is the immediate integral unit of speech built up of words according to a definite syntactic pattern and distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose. Any coherent connection of words having an informative destination is effected within the frame work of the sentence. Therefore the sentence is the main object of syntax as part of the grammatical theory.

The notion of predicativity.

Thus, the sentence is characterised by its specific category of predication which establishes the relation of the named phenomena to actual life. As for predication proper, it embodies not any kind of modality, but only syntactic modality as the fundamental distinguishing feature of the sentence. It is the feature of predication, fully and explicitly ex- pressed by a contextually relevant grammatical complex, that identifies the sentence in distinction to any other combination of words having a situational referent.

The centre of predication in a sentence of verbal type (which is the predominant type of sentence-structure in English) is a finite verb. The finite verb expresses essential predicative meanings by its categorial forms, first of all, the categories of tense and mood (the category of person, as we have seen before, reflects the corresponding category of the subject). However, proceeding from the principles of sentence analysis worked out in the Russian school of theoretical syntax, in particular, in the classical treatises of V.V. Vinogradov, we insist that predication is effected not only by the forms of the finite verb connecting it with the subject, but also by all the other forms and elements of the sentence establishing the connection between the named objects and reality, including such means of expression as intonation, word order, different functional words. Be-sides the purely verbal categories, in the predicative semantics are included such syntactic sentence meanings as purposes of communication (declaration — interrogation — inducement), modal probability, affirmation and negation, and others, which, taken together, provide for the sentence to be identified on its own, proposemic level of lingual hierarchy.

Classification of sentences according to their structure (simple and composite; compound; complex; semi-complex and semi-compound).

Simple Sentence. A simple sentence consists of only one independent clause containing a subject and a verb and it expresses complete thought. There is no dependent clause. “An independent clause (also called main clause) is called a simple sentence.” Examples. He laughed. She ate an apple. They are sleeping. I bought a book.

Composite sentences are all the other sentences. They are:

Compound Sentence. A compound sentence consists of at least two independent clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions. There is no dependent clause in compound sentence. The coordinating conjunctions use to join independent clauses are “for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so”. Independent clauses can also be joined by a semicolon (;). A comma may or may not be used before the conjunction in compound sentence. Examples: I like an apple but my brother likes a mango. I helped him and he became happy. He failed two times yet he is not disappointed. I asked him a question; he replied correctly.

Complex Sentence. A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and at least one dependent clause joined by subordinating conjunction (because, although, since, when, unless etc) or relative pronoun (that, who, which). Examples: I met the boy who had helped me. She is wearing a shirt which looks nice. You can’t pass the test unless you study for it. If a complex sentence begins with an independent clause, a comma is not used between clauses in a complex sentence. If a complex sentence begins with dependent clause then a comma is use after dependent clause in a complex sentence. See the following example. He is playing well although he is ill. Although he is ill, he is playing well.

The semi-composite sentence is to be defined as a sentence with more than one predicative lines which are expressed in fusion. For the most part, one of these lines can be identified as the leading or dominant, the others making the semi-predicative expansion of the sentence. The expanding semi-predicative line in the minimal semi-composite sentence is either wholly fused with the dominant (complete) predicative line of the construction, or partially fused with it, being weakened as a result of the fusing derivational transformation. The semi-composite sentence displays an intermediary syntactic character between the composite sentence and the simple sentence. Its immediate syntagmatic structure ("surface" structure) is analogous to that of an expanded simple sentence, since it possesses only one completely expressed predicative unit. Its derivational structure ("deep" structure), on the other hand, is analogous to that of a composite sentence, because it is derived from two or more completely predicative units — its base sentences.

Examples: The man stood. + The man was silent. → The man stood silent. The moon rose. + The moon was red. → The moon rose red.

The semi-compound sentence is a semi-composite sentence built up on the principle of coordination. Proceeding from the outlined grammatical analysis of the composite sentence, the structure of the semi-compound sentence is derivationally to be traced back to minimum two base sentences having an identical element belonging to one or both of their principal syntactic positions, i.e. either the subject, or the predicate, or both. By the process of semi-compounding, the sentences overlap round the identical element sharing it in coordinative fusion, which can be either syndetic or asyndetic. Thus, from the formal point of view, a sentence possessing coordinated notional parts of immediately sentential reference (directly related to its predicative line) is to be treated as semi-compound. But different structural types of syntactic coordination even of direct sentential reference (coordinated subjects, predicates, objects, adverbial modifiers) display very different implications as regards semi-compounding composition of sentences. By way of a general statement we may say that, other things being equal, the closer the coordinative group is related to the verb-predicate of the sentence, the more directly and explicitly it functions as a factor of sentence semi-compounding.

Example: There was nothing else, only her face in front of me. →There was nothing else in front of me. + There was only her face in front of me.

Classification of sentences according to communication types (declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamative).

Declarative sentence: She is sensible (statement). A sentence that makes a statement or assertion is called an assertive or declarative sentence. Assertive sentence ends with a period.

Interrogative : is she sensible? (question) A sentence that asks a question is called an interrogative sentence. Interrogative sentence ends with question mark.

Imperative: Be sensible!(directive) A sentence that expresses a request, command or advice is called an imperative sentence.

Exclamative: How sensible she is (exclamatory) A sentence that expresses strong feelings or emotions is called an exclamatory sentence. These sentences express surprise, joy, sorrow, appreciation, love excitement, frustration, anger etc. An exclamatory sentence ends with exclamation mark.