3. Read the second part of the text to understand general items of any conference.

Submitting Papers for Conferences

Knowledge gained but not shared with others represents a waste of scarce resources. Teaching, publishing, and conference participation represent the three key ways of disseminating new knowledge so that it may be read, debated, and applied by others.

«Knowledge» in political science is produced by dialogues among scholars who share common interests – although not necessarily common perspectives and values. Portions of these dialogues are usually summarized in the introductions or «literature reviews» of books and articles.

The point of articles and conference papers is to add something to such an ongoing dialogue. Conference papers are often a precursor to publishing an article on a particular topic.

Conferences and your career

Conferences are useful for seeing other scholars, of seeing work in progress elsewhere, and of making yourself visible to others. Writing a paper can also be a good way of forcing yourself to stick to a deadline

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or reach some milestone in terms of developing results or some other section. Having conference papers on your CV also suggests that you are aware of the norms of the discipline and have some professional experience. BUT: beware of presenting too many conference papers. Conference paper preparation takes time away from other projects (working on a dissertation chapter), and conference papers are most beneficial when they turn into publications. Students with many conference papers and no publications stand out in a negative way during job searches. The danger is that a potential employer will see this list and reach the conclusion that you are someone who cannot complete (i.e. publish) the work you've started. You should have no more than 3-conference papers for each publication on your CV.

General suggestions regarding conference papers

1. Submit a paper when you think you have something to add to an ongoing debate. Your contribution could be purely theoretical or conceptual, but you will usually have supporting evidence as well. Keep in mind that there must be some threshold for validity. Ask: how likely is it that a typical political scientist will find my conclusions plausible? Keeping in mind that scholars disagree, you must be fairly confident that a large number of the audience will find the methods and arguments persuasive.

2. Never write a professional paper without some clear idea about the audience. Who would be interested in reading the paper? Everyone in your major field?

3. Once you have an audience in mind, try to write for a group slightly less specialized than the audience. It is usually possible and important to show non-specialists why the paper topic is interesting. Try not to exclude non-specialists by impenetrable jargon. Try to suggest why your research question, method, or approach might be useful to political scientists generally. This is a good way to set up your introduction.

4. Do not overstate your case. Do not claim your findings will cure cancer and contribute to world peace if your contribution is incremental. Do not claim that the conclusions are «clear» if the evidence is weak and multiple interpretations are possible. (Tip: Avoid the use of «clearly,» «obviously,» etc. If it really is obvious, there is no need to say so; if a conclusion is not obvious, saying so only invites extra scrutiny).

Proposing a paper for a conference

1. A «Call for Papers» is usually issued 6-9 months before a conference. These calls are usually mailed to organization members and

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printed in PS. Often, calls are also mailed to department heads to be posted on bulletin boards; some are distributed through e-mail mailing lists such as PSRT-L.

2. Usually, the conference organizer designates 10-30 individuals to organize conference panels on particular topics. Sometimes it is difficult to tell which session is most appropriate. Imagine that you wanted to present a paper on the comparative trade policies of France and Germany at the 1996 APS A meetings. The call for papers lists different organizers for «Comparative Politics,» «Comparative Politics of Advanced Industrial Societies,» «Politics and Society in Western Europe,» «Political Economy,» and «Foreign Policy Analysis.» De- pending on the focus of your paper, more than one of these areas might be appropriate. In this case, you must select one or two areas. APS A rules permit you to submit the same paper proposal to one or two organizers, as long as you inform both of the multiple submission. Some conferences only allow you to submit the proposal to one section. Read the call for papers carefully to determine procedures and rules.

3. In political science, the norm is to submit a paper proposal which is an abstract of about 1 page. If the research is nearly complete, the abstract should introduce the research question, discuss specific hypotheses, data and methods (if appropriate), and summarize the major conclusions. If the work is not yet complete, describe the types of conclusions which are possible and explain the methods in sufficient detail that the organizer can get a good idea of how you propose to answer your research question.

4. Sometimes you will submit your proposal by regular mail; other times you may be able to submit your proposal by email. More and more often, there is a web-based submission process. If submitting by mail, the proposal should be accompanied by a brief letter (in case the letter and proposal become separated, be sure to have your name, paper title, and affiliation on both). Again, read the call for papers carefully to determine submission procedures and deadlines.

5. Notification of acceptance or rejection usually arrives 6-12 weeks after the submission deadline. Keep all correspondence because copies of the acceptance letter will be required as part of your application for travel funds.

Presenting the paper

1. If your paper is accepted, you may be required to become a member of the organization (if not already) and pre-register for the conference. More important, you will be expected to mail a finished

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copy of the paper to the panel discussant and panel chair 2-4 weeks before the conference. At some conferences, you may also be expected to bring 30--0 copies of the paper with you for distribution (hint: papers written by most of us rarely sell out; take fewer than recommended).

2. Most panels last 1/2 to 2 hours. Three to five papers are presented with each panelist given about 1minutes, sometimes less. One or two discussants will be given similar amounts of time to comment on the papers. Do not read your paper. For one thing, it is only possible to read --8 pages in 20 minutes. Therefore, you need to cover only the essentials. Second, the demands on an audience listening to a paper are far greater than on the same people reading it. You will want to prepare presentation designed for a listening audience (this is a lot like giving a class lecture). For your first conference, time your presentation. If handouts are helpful, prepare 20-2(bring more if somebody famous is on your panel). Note: If you require an overhead projector or other equipment, you usually must make a special request shortly after your paper is accepted. Read the instructions that accompany the acceptance letter carefully.

3. Upon arriving at the conference, locate the room where your panel will be held. Check out the room and remember how to get there. Beware: the elevators in the conference hotel become jammed as dozens of panels end; do not be late to your own panel! When you arrive, go to the table at the front of the room and introduce yourself to the other panelists.

4. There are three difficult tasks at the panel. The first is looking as if you are paying attention to the first panelist when you are mentally rehearsing your own paper; try to relax and enjoy listening to the other papers. The second challenge is presenting your paper in the allotted time. A good panel chair will pass you a note after 13 minutes which says «2 minutes to go.» Here you may need to pause for a second and map out a strategy for summarizing your conclusions in less time than you planned. The third difficulty is listening carefully to the discussant — especially if you feel the discussant did not understand your paper or did not like it. Take careful notes and try not to over-react when you get a chance to respond. If the discussant has potentially valid criticisms, it is OK to agree. Some people seem naturally better at such presentations than others and some people are more comfortable interacting with other panelists. But everybody gets better with experience.

Travel funds

In general, you should consider the tradeoffs when considering whether to propose a paper. If a conference paper represents a discrete

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section of your dissertation, an idea that you can potentially publish with a reasonable amount of additional work, or a critical opportunity to get feedback on a key idea, then go for it. You should feel free to consult with your supervisor when considering submitting a paper proposal.

See an example of a paper proposal:

July 13, 199Dr. William G. Jacoby Department of Government University of South Carolina Columbia, SC 29208 Dear Professor Jacoby,

Enclosed is a paper proposal which I hope you will consider for inclusion in next spring's MPSA meetings. The paper focuses on the comparison of female heads of household with women in other marital and parental roles in order to show how family transitions play a crucial role in enhancing or hindering political involvement.

The particulars are:

«Family Life, Resources, and Political Participation»

Eric Plutzer

Dept. of Political Science

107 Burrowes Building

Penn State University University Park, PA 16802-6200

Office: 814/86--6-76, Fax: 814/863-8979, e-mail: EXP12@psu.edu

As is the norm, I also have sent a proposal to another session organizer, in this case to Nancy Bums in theWomen and Politics section.

I would also be interested in serving as discussant or panel chair. My areas of specialization are women in politics, political participation, and survey methodology.

If possible, please confirm receipt of this fax by a brief e-mail note (EXP12@psu.edu). Thanks in advance.

Sincerely, Eric Plutzer

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EMPLOYMENT LAW

Employment law is that part of law which deals with the legal problems arising from the employment relationship. The relationship between employer and employee is based on the contract of employment. However, with the development of trade unions, employers' organisations and, in particular, state intervention, the subject covers many aspects other than simply the contract of employment.

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Traditionally it has been thought that employment law, perhaps more than any branch of law, exists largely to prevent the need for the parties to a dispute to resort to the tribunals or courts. Recent trends have meant increased confrontation in the employment sphere and parties in such disputes seem more willing to resort to legal redress in order to test the legal merits of their actions. The law, therefore, is becoming increasingly important in such areas. The use of practice and procedures, which are based on the legal framework, are obviously still important but so is the use of the legal remedy.

Particularly in the past twenty years, employment law has had a growing significance for managers – whether general managers or human resource practitioners. Potentially, it influences and may constrain action that managers want to take.

A manager advising on the handling of a dismissal, for example, is more likely to produce an effective and lawful outcome if s/he does not focus exclusively on the problem in hand (terminating the employment of an employee who has misbehaved). Remembering the purposes behind the legislation (to provide fair reasons, fair treatment and natural justice and consideration of all the circumstances) is important. Similarly, a recognition of the business context and organisational needs is important.

Likewise, the development of corporate policies is more likely to be effective and well-informed if they are not seen, narrowly, as a series of conditions of employment to be applied mechanistically. For example, when parental leave policies are formulated, an understanding of the social trends against which they are developed is important (e.g. greater economic activity by women, longer working hours, difficulties of reconciling work and non-work life). Furthermore, the social purposes behind this legislation (to promote family-friendly policies and provide a better balance between work and non-work life) should be acknowledged to ensure that the corporate policies achieve the statutory objectives. A manager who understands these purposes is better able to defend and argue for policy developments with colleagues.

Broadly speaking, the employment relationship is regulated by voluntary and legal measures. Voluntary measures comprise agreements and other decisions. They also include voluntarily accepted standards of good practice. In practice, these do not exist as isolated sets of measures. They, invariably, interlink and influence each other.

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These voluntary and legal mechanisms achieve two broad purposes.

First, at various points, they influence the function of management - i.e. the ways in which managers exercise power, control workforces and manage conflicts of interest. The influence on management can be illustrated in the following way. It is widely accepted that the employment relationship is characterised by an imbalance of power in favour of the employer. Both voluntary and legal regulation can restrain the unfettered exercise of this employer power. Furthermore, the law can establish both minimum conditions of employment and also set limits on the action an employer might take against employees.

The second purpose is to assert certain principles. On the one hand, there are those principles that influence the nature and quality of decisions that are made (for example, fairness, equal treatment, reasonableness, etc.). In addition are those principles, which mould the regulatory process itself – for example, the fundamental importance of consent to the contract of employment, and of procedural fairness in disciplinary cases.

CONSUMER LAW: PROTECTION OF CONSUMERS

Consumer protection is a term, which is applied to the efforts of government, public-interest organizations, individuals, and businesses to establish, protect, and enforce the rights of people who buy products such as food and automobiles or services such as health care and insurance.

Products offered for sale should not pose undue risk of physical harm to consumers or their families.

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Consumers need sufficient information in order to choose wisely among the competing products and services available. The marketplace, however, contains a great many different and complex products, and advertising is usually not informative enough for consumer purposes. Therefore, consumers often lack the information required to compare the quality of various products and services, to determine their true cost, or to be assured of their suitabilty or safety. Many consumer problems are caused by incorrect or fraudulent information.

Consumers often need more than just the information sellers disclose. For instance, firms rarely volunteer information about the shortcomings of their products. To provide essential comparative information, several private, independent organizations test products and report their findings to interested persons.

A consumer who has been cheated or who has bought a product or service that does not perform properly has a right to seek a refund, replacement of the product, or other remedy. Sometimes, however, a buyer finds that the manufacturer or seller will not cooperate in resolving the complaint. In recent years laws have been passed to help dissatisfied consumers. Some laws declare certain deceptive business practices illegal and give consumers the right to sue a business believed to be violating the law. The communications media – newspapers, television, and radio – often aid consumers. Problems with credit and billing can also affect consumers.

Also, the needs of consumers should be considered when government decisions affecting them are made.

Industrialization brought to many countries of the world consumer problems it caused. In many nations the government plays a major role in product testing and consumer education. In the Scandinavian countries and Mexico, for example, the government funds consumer information and education activities. Some nations place great emphasis on informative labeling. The Swedish Institute for Informative Labeling, for instance, works to promote the use of standardized labels that include information about the product's performance in specific «standardized methods of measuring performance» tests. Other countries focus their efforts on making consumer assistance and information more accessible. Austria's Verein fur Konsumenten Information operates a demonstration center in Vienna where the public can inspect available brands and receive impartial buying advice. Most industrialized nations, and many developing countries, have consumer product

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testing organizations that also publish reports on product tests, services, and other matters of importance to consumers.

The International Organization of Consumers Unions (IOCU) links activities of some 130 organizations in more than -0 countries. It serves as an international forum on consumer problems and works to stimulate an interchange of product test information, consumer education materials, and other data among organizations of different nations. IOCU sponsors an Asian-Pacific Regional Office to assist consumers in developing countries. The organization also represents consumer interests in international agencies such as the United Nations.