II. Read and translate the text: ancient historiography

Understanding the past appears to be a universal human need and the telling of history has emerged independently in civilisations around the world. What constitutes history is a philosophical question. For the purposes of this survey it is written history recorded in a narrative format for the purpose of informing future generations about events. The earliest critical historical thought emerged in Greece, a development which would be an important influence on the writing of history elsewhere in the world.

Greek historiography

Written history appeared first with the ancient Greeks, whose historians greatly contributed to the development of historical methodology. The very first historical works were The Histories composed by Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484 BC–ca.425 BC), who became later known as the 'father of history' (Cicero). Herodotus attempted to distinguish between more and less reliable accounts, and personally conducted research by travelling extensively, giving written accounts of various Mediterranean cultures. Although Herodot's overall emphasis lay on the actions and characters of men, he also attributed an important role to divinity in the determination of historical events.

Thucydides, on the other hand, largely eliminated divine causality in his account of the war between Athens and Sparta, establishing a rationalistic element which became defining of subsequent Western historiography. He was also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event, while his successor Xenophon (ca. 431–355 BC) introduced autobiographical elements and character studies in his Anabasis.

The proverbial Philippic attacks of the Athenian orator Demosthenes (384-322 BC) on Philip II of Macedon marked the height of ancient political agitation. The now lost history of Alexander's campaigns by the diadoch Ptolemy I (367-283 BC) may represent the first historical work composed by a ruler. Polybius (ca. 203–120 BC) wrote on the rise of Rome to world prominence, trying to harmonize the Greek and Roman point of views.

Reports exist of other near-eastern histories, such as that composed by the Phoenician historian Sanchuniathon; but his very existence is considered semi-fabled and writings attributed to him are fragmentary, known only through the later historians Philo of Byblos and Eusebius, who asserted that he wrote before even the Trojan war.

Roman historiography

The Romans adopted the Greek tradition, becoming the first people to write history in a non-Greek language. While early Roman works were still written in Greek, the Latin Origins, composed by the Roman statesman Cato the Elder (234–149 BC) in a conscious effort to counteract the Greek cultural influence, marked the beginning of Latin historiography. Hailed for its lucid style, Julius Caesar's (100 BC–44 BC) Bellum Gallicum may represent the earliest autobiographical war coverage. The politician and orator Cicero (106–43 BC) introduced rhetorical elements in his political writings.

Strabo (63 BC–ca. AD 24) was a main exponent of the Greco-Roman tradition of combining geography with history, presenting a descriptive history of peoples and places known to his era. Livy (59 BC–AD 17) recorded the rise of Rome from city-state to world dominion. His inquiry into the question of what would have happened if Alexander the Great had marched against Rome represents the first known instance of alternate history.

Biography, although popular throughout antiquity, was introduced as a branch of history by the works of Plutarch (c. 46 - 127) and Suetonius (c. 69-after 130) who described the deeds and characters of ancient personalities, stressing their human side. Tacitus (c. 56–c. 117) denounced Roman immorality by praising German virtues, elaborating on the tops of the Noble savage.

Writing history was popular among Christian monks in the Middle Ages. They wrote about the history of Jesus Christ, the Church and of their patrons, the dynastic history of the local rulers. History was written about states or nations during the Renaissance. The study of history changed during the Enlightenment and Romanticism. Voltaire described the history of certain ages that were important according to him, instead of describing events in a chronological order. History became an independent discipline. It was not called philosophia historiae anymore, but merely history (historia).

III. Give synonyms to the underlined words:

• recorded in a narrative format;

• to emerge independently;

• reliable account;

• divinity in the determination;

• to attempt to distinguish;

• a descriptive history;

• inquiry into the question;

• to denounce immorality;

• lucid style;

• instance of alternate history;

• conducted research;

• world dominion

IV. Study the given below lexical units (provide the Ukrainian variant):

• a universal human need;

• philosophical question;

• narrative format;

• for the purpose of informing;

• an important influence;

• written accounts;

• rationalistic element;

• immediate origins;

• political agitation;

• rhetorical elements;

• world dominion

V. Look through the text and write out the key historical terms.

VI. Find English equivalents for the following:

• описова історія;

• достовірна оцінка;

• проводити дослідження;

• представляти автобіографічні елементи;

• дослідження питання;

• безпосереднє походження;

• грецький культурний вплив;

• традиція поєднувати географію з історією;

• ознаменувати початок латинської історіографії;

• династична історія місцевих правителів;

• приклад альтернативної історії;

• опис подій у хронологічному порядку