9. The adjective and stative. Classification of adjectives (qualitative and relative). Degrees of comparison. The adverb.

The adjective expresses the categorial semantics of property of a substance. It means that each adjective used in the text presupposes relation to some noun the property of whose referent it denotes, such as its material, color, dimensions, positions, state and other characteristics both permanent and temporary. In the sentence the adjective performs the functions of an attribute and a predicative. Of the two, the more specific function of the adjective is that of an attribute, since the function of predicative can be performed by the noun as well.

According to Khaimovich and Rogovskaya statives, called "adlinks" (by virtue of their connection with link-verbs and on the analogy of the term "adverbs"), are allegedly opposed to adjectives on a purely semantic basis, since adjectives denote "qualities", and statives-adlinks denote "states". As different from adjectives, statives-adlinks are characterized by specific prefix a-. They allegedly(якобы) do not posess the category of the degrees of comparison. The combinability of statives-adlinks is different from that of adjectives in so far as they are not used in the pre-positional attributive function, i.e. are characterized by the absence of the right-hand combinability with nouns. In the sentence the statives performs the functions of an attribute and a predicative. As different from the common adjective predominant function of a stative is that of the predicative.

All the adjectives divided into two large subclasses: qualitative and relative. Relative adjectives express such properties of a substance as are determined by the direct relation of the substance to some other substance. E.g. wood - a wooden hut, history - a historical event.

Qualitative adjectives, as different from relative ones, denote various qualities of substances which admit of a quantitative estimation (оценка), i.e. establishing their correlative quantitative measure.

E.g. a difficult task - too difficult task.

In this connection, the ability of an adjective to form degrees of comparison is usually taken as a formal sign of its qualitative character in opposition to a relative adjective which is understood as incapable of forming degrees of comparison by definition. The category of adjectival comparison expresses the quantitative characteristic of the quality of a nounal referent, i.e. it gives a relative evaluation of the quantity of a quality. The category is constituted by the opposition of the three forms known under the heading of degrees of comparison, the basic form(positive degree), having no features of comparison; the comparative degree form, having the feature of restricted superiority; the superlative degree form, having the feature of unrestricted superiority.

The adverb is usually defined as a word expressing either property of an action, or property of another property, or circumstances in which an action occurs. In accord with their categorial meaning adverbs are characterized by a combinability with verbs, adjectives and words of adverbial nature.

In accord with their word-building structure adverbs may be simple and derived. Simple adverbs are rather few, and nearly all of them display functional semantics, mostly of pronominal character: when, here, there. So, then etc. the typical adverbial affixes are -ly, -ways(sideways, crossways),prefix a-(away, ahead, across)

Adverbs are commonly divided into qualitative, quantitative and circumstantial.

By qualitative such adverbs are meant as express immediate, inherently non-graded qualities of actions and other qualities. Typical -ly-adverbs

Quantitative adverbs include words of degree. There occur several very clearly pronounced sets. The first the adverbs of high degree. These adverbs are sometimes classed as "intensifiers" (very, quite, pretty, strongly etc.). The second includes the adverbs of excessive degree also belonging to the broader subclass of intensifiers: too, awfully, dreadfully etc. the 3 - unexpected degree - surprisingly, astonishingly. The 4 - the adverbs of moderate degree: fairly, relatively etc.

The 5 adverbs of a low degree - slightly, a little, a bit. The 6 the adverbs of approximate degree - almost, nearly. The 7 adverbs of optimal degree - enough, sufficiently. The 8 adverbs of inadequate degree - intolerably, ridiculously. The 9 adverbs of under degree - hardly, scarcely.

10. Modern English verbs. General characteristics (word-building elements, classification into notional, auxiliary and link verbs, limitive and durative verbs, transitive and intransitive verbs, regular and irregular verbs, modal verbs, phrasal verbs, finite and non-finite forms of verbs.

The verb is the most complex part of speech. Its main functions are to establish the connection between the situation (situational event) named in the utterance and reality. Its complexity is accounted for by a great number of forms and grammatical categories. They are: tense, aspect, time correlation, mood, voice, person, number.

The general categorial meaning of the verb is process presented dynamically, i.e. developing in time.

Word-building elements

According to structure verb may be simple, sound-replacive (food-to feed), stress-replacive (record-to record), expanded or derived (magnify, justify), composite or compound (blackmail), and phrasal (to give a smile).

The original simple verb stems are not numerous. Cf. go, take, read, etc.

The conversion (zero-suffixation) as means of derivation, especially conversion of the "noun — verb" type, greatly enlarges the simple stem set of verbs, (one of the most productive ways of forming verb lexemes). Cf.: a house — to house; a man — to man; a park — to park, etc.

Notional verbs undergo the three main grammatically relevant categorisations.

The verbs presenting a process as potentially limited, can be called "limitive”(arrive, start, aim, drop, get out, be off, etc.

The verbs presenting a process as not limited by any border point, "unlimitive"= "non-terminative"="durative"="cursive"( continue, live, sleep, work, behave, hope, stand, etc.)

Verbal transitivity, as one of the specific qualities of the general completivity, is the ability of the verb to take a direct object.

An irregular verb is one that does not take the -ed ending for the Past Simple and Past Participle forms.

Phrasal verb is a verb complex consisting of a verb and one or more following particles and acting as a complete syntactic and semantic unit. E.g. to look up

The grammatical categories which find formal expression in the outward structure of the verb

• first, the category of finitude dividing the verb into finite and non-finite forms

The finite verb invariably performs the function of the verb-predicate.

The non-finite verb performs functions of the syntactic subject, object, adverbial modifier, attribute.

In other words, the non-finite forms of the verb in self-dependent use perform a potentially predicative function, constituting secondary predicative centres in the sentence.

second, the categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, and mood, whose complete set is revealed in every word-form of the notional finite verb.

* The term "verbids" for the non-finite forms of the verb was introduced by O. Jespersen. Its merit lies in the fact that, unlike the more traditional term "verbals", it is devoid of dubious connotations as well as homonymic correlations.

The class of verbs falls into a number of subclasses distinguished by different semantic and lexico-grammatical features.

On the upper level of division two unequal sets

the set of verbs of full nominative value (notional verbs),( derivationally open, it includes the bulk of the verbal lexicon)

the set of verbs of partial nominative value (semi-notional and functional verbs)( is derivationally closed, it includes limited subsets of verbs characterised by individual relational properties)

Auxiliary verbs constitute grammatical elements of the categorial forms of the verb. These are the verbs be, have, do, shall, will, should, would, may, might.

Modal verbs are used with the infinitive as predicative markers expressing relational meanings of the subject attitude type, i.e. ability, obligation, permission, advisability, etc.

Link-verbs introduce the nominal part of the predicate (the predicative) which is commonly expressed by a noun, an adjective, or a phrase of a similar semantic-grammatical character. they have meaningful content. They expose the relational aspect of the characteristics ascribed by the predicative to the subject.

The linking predicator function in the purest form is effected by the verb be (pure link-verb)All the link-verbs other than the pure link be express some specification of this general predicative-linking semantics, so that they should be referred to as "specifying" link-verbs. The common specifying link-verbs fall into two main groups: those that express perceptions(seem, appear, look, feel, taste) and "factual" link-verb connection(become, get, grow, remain, keep) some notional verbs in language have the power to perform the function of link-verbs without losing their lexical nominative value "double predicate". (Fred lay awake all through the night.)