12. The category of mood.

The category of mood expresses the character of connection between the process denoted by the verb and the actual reality, either presenting the process as a fact that really happened, happens or will happen, or treating it as an imaginary phenomenon, i.e. the subject of a hypothesis, speculation, desire.

The category of mood expresses the outer interpretation of the action as a whole, namely, the speaker's introduction of it as actual or imaginary.

We distinguish syntetich and analytical forms of the subjunctive mood. Synthetic forms are mostly used in special expressions of wish. Analytical subjunctive mood is represented by various combinations of modals with infinitives. Both types of subjunctive mood are used in complex sentences (with conditional clauses) of various types.

Scholars cannot yet come to an agreement upon the number of moods in modern English. Pr. Barkhudarov denies the existence of subjunctive saying that its meanings are expressed by indicative mood forms, thus, he suggests a system of two moods – indicative and imperative.

Pr. Blokh denies the existence of imperatives saying that their meaning and forms do not differ from those of subjunctive, thus he suggests a system of two moods – indicative and subjunctive, the latter should be divided into subjunctive spective and subjunctive conditional. The first type includes the expressions of wish and commands,(constructions may/might+Inf, supposition - shoud+Inf, inducement – let+inf) the second is mostly used in conditional sentences.

Subjunctive spective has the forms: S1 or pure S (expressing consideration, desideration, inducement), S2 – stipulative (expressing unral condition), S3 –consective (expressing unreal consequence), and S4 –modal spective or modal S (expressing consideration, desideration, inducement)

13. The categories of aspect and perfect.

Aspect is a grammatical category, which indicates the inherent qualities of an action. It indicates whether an action is a developing process, whether it has just started or has already taken place. Aspect is a morphological category based on the opposition of indefinite and continuous forms, indefinite and perfect forms. The continuous forms are aspective, because, reflecting the inherent character of the process performed by the verb, they do not, and cannot denote the timing of the process. The perfect, as different from the continuous, does reflect a kind of timing, though in a purely relative way. Namely, it coordinates two times, locating one of them in retrospect towards the other. The perfect experesses not only time in relative retrospect, but also the very connection of a prior process with a time-limit, reflected in a subsequent (более поздний) event. The suggested name for this category will be "retrospective coordination". ". The categorial member opposed to the perfect, for the sake of terminological consistency, will be named "imperfect" (non-perfect).

Perfective: fall, kick, bite, throw, break,( terminative) ask, evaporate. .. Imperfective: be, know, have, doubt, suspect, (durative) like, resemble, contain... The conceptual between these classes is made on the grounds that perfective verbs designate occurences with a beginning and an end, some change is observed in the situation desribed, besides the actions denoted by perfectives are bounded in time. Whereas the actions or states rendered by imperfectives are not bounded in time, they are of indefinite continuity. There is a grammatical difference between the abovementioned calsses. In the present time context the normal tense to be used with perfectives is present continuous, while with imperfectives - present indefinite.

Continuous is usually employed in descriptions of scenes correlating a number of actions going on simultaneously. The category of retrospective coordination (retrospect) is constituted by the opposition of the perfect forms of the verb to the non-perfect, or imperfect forms. The marked member of the opposition is the perfect, which is built up by the auxiliary have in combination with the past participle of the conjugated verb. The difference between the perfect and non-perfect forms of the verb, according to the tense interpretation of the perfect, consists in the fact that the perfect denotes a secondary temporal characteristic of the action. Namely, it shows that the denoted action precedes some other action or situation in the present, past, or future.

(конспект)Perfect forms have been the subject of a lengthy grammatical discussion. The difficulty lies in the fact that perfect forms render meanings which are similar to the meanings of the tense forms on the one hand and continuous forms on the other. The problem is still complicated by the factors:

• The extention of perfect to the sphere of non-finite forms of the verb.

• The use of perfect with verbs of different lexical classes.

• The existanse of a perfect continuous forms which enjoys a somewhat privileged and independent status in grammar.

Perfect forms are syntactically and semantically dependent. Their use is determined by the rules of construction in the first place and by the aspects of the situation described in the second.

Scholars point out that unlike tense and aspect forms perfect forms designate not one but two events in successive connection. Thus the form of the present perfect combines 2 temporal planes - the past and the present.

14. The study of the sentence and phrase. Their general properties and functions. The notions of predication and modality. Classification of sentences according to their structure (simple, complex, compound sentences), semi-composite sentences. The notion of an elementary sentence and its transforms.

The sentence is a group of words which expresses predication and is used for the purpose of communication. Predicative connection of the subject and predicate makes up the backbone of any complete sentence in English. A sentence can consist of only one word, as any lingual unit of the upper level can consist of only one unit of the lower level, e.g.: Why? Thanks. But a word making up a sentence is thereby turned into an utterance-unit expressing various connections between the situation described and actual reality. So, the definition of the sentence as a predicative lingual unit gives prominence to the basic differential feature of the sentence as a separate lingual unit: it performs the nominative signemic function, like the word or the phrase, and at the same time it performs the reality-evaluating, or predicative function.The phrase is a group of words which does not express predication and is used for the purpose of nomination. (Ex.: The government recruited – a completed sentence; The government recruiting – a part of a sentence).

The notions of predication and modality. The definition of the category of predication is similar to the definition of the category of modality, which also shows a connection between the named objects and actual reality. However, modality is a broader category, revealed not only in grammar, but in the lexical elements of language; for example, various modal meanings are expressed by modal verbs (can, may, must, etc.), by word-particles of specifying modal semantics (just, even, would be, etc.), by semi-functional modal words and phrases of subjective evaluation (perhaps, unfortunately, by all means, etc.) and by other lexical units. Predication can be defined as syntactic modality, expressed by the sentence.

Classification of sentences according to their structure (simple, complex, compound sentences), semi-composite sentences. The sentence can be classified according to the structure into simple composite and semi-composite sentence. Simple sentences are mono-predicative units. It means that their structure have one subject and one predicate. (Ex.: Jack and Mike liked Mary. – semi-composite)They may be extended or non-extended that is why they may or may not have optional parts expressed in them. Obligatory parts of a sentence complement its structure without extending it. (Ex.: Mrs.Burns looked at Myryam. – non-extended obligatory part/ Mrs.Burns looked nervously at Myryam. – extended part). In simple sentences scholars observe 1-member and 2-member sentences. In 2-member sentences the subject and predicate are both present, in 1-member sentence one of them is missing. (Ex.: Strange how different she’s become. – 1-member sentence). The compound sentence is a predicative unit in which all the parts are semantically equal ti each other. Compound sentences are easily transformed into narratives. Clauses in compound sentences are connected by means of coordinate conjuctions ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘for’, ‘or’, ‘either or’; conjunctive adverbs ‘thus’, ‘so’, ‘yet’, ‘then’, ‘consequently’, ‘nevertheless’. (Ex.: Neither of us was having any luck nevertheless we kept trying.) The complex sentence is a poly-predicative unit which has a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. Sometimes subordinate clauses may function as principal ones in which case we speak of several degrees of subordination. Functionally each type of a clause is equal to a part of a sentence. Thus subject clauses perform the function of the subject. Some scholars treat subject predicative and object clauses under the term nominal clauses because they can easily replace one another expressing the same idea. The principal clause is restricted to the link-verb ‘be’. This happens when subject and predicative clauses are expressed in the same complex sentence. What is left must be the principal clause. The semi-composite sentence is a sentence, the predicative lines in which are expressed in fusion. The semi-composed sentence is similar to a simple one in the way that it has one full predication expressed by a finite verb. At the same time it bears a strong resemblance to a composite sentence because in its structure we find 2 predicative lines, one of which is expressed by a finite verb and the other is expressed by a construction with a non-finite verb. (Ex.: Mary smiled and came to me. / The moon rose red. – double semantic predicate / I make notes in my diary of the things that I should mend or replace. – semi-complex, attribute).

The notion of an elementary sentence and its transforms. It is a sentence in which all the positions are obligatory; in other words, an “elementary sentence” includes, besides the principal parts, only complementive modifiers.The elementary sentence coincides structurally with the so-called unexpanded simple sentence, a monopredicative sentence, which includes only obligatory nominative parts. The expanded simple sentence includes also some optional parts, i.e. supplementive modifiers, which do not violate the syntactic status of the simple sentence, i.e. do not make it into a composite or semi-composite sentence. For example, the sentence ‘He gave me the book’ is unexpanded, because all the nominative parts of this sentence are required by the obligatory valency of the verb to give; cf.: *He gave…; He gave me… - these constructions would be semantically and structurally deficient. The sentence ‘He gave me a very interesting book’ is expanded, because it includes an expansion, the attribute-supplement very interesting; the second sentence is reducible to the elementary unexpanded sentence built on the syntagmatic pattern of the bicomplementive verb to give.

15. Classification of sentences according to the purpose of utterance (declarative (affirmative, negative), imperative, interrogative and exclamatory sentences). Nominative and actual divisions of the sentence.

A sentence becomes an utterance when it is used in the continious flaw of speech aimed at bringing into the conversation some need facts or ideas. It is only within the discourse that the sentence acquires a definite pattern of presenting information in which one idea is viewed as a continuation of the previously mentioned one. Declarative sentences are traditionally defined as those expressing statements, either affirmative or negative, e.g.: He (didn’t) shut the window. Imperative sentences express inducements of various kinds (orders or requests); they may also be either affirmative or negative, e.g.: (Don’t) Shut the window, please. Interrogative sentences express questions, or requests for information, e.g.: Did he shut the window? Any sentence expressing sudden emotion is called exclamatory sentence. It is accompanied by the ! sign (exclamation point). As for so-called “purely exclamatory sentences”, such as My God!; Goodness gracious!; etc., as was mentioned earlier, they are not sentences in the proper sense of the term, though they occupy isolated positions like separate utterances in speech. They are also treated as “pseudo-sentences”.

Nominative and actual divisions of the sentence. The notional parts of the sentence referring to the basic elements of the reflected situation form, taken together, is the nominative meaning of the sentence. For the sake of terminological consistency, the division of the sentence into notional parts can be just so called — the "nominative division." Alongside of the nominative division of the sentence, the idea of the so-called "actual division" of the sentence has been put forward in theoretical linguistics. The purpose of the actual division of the sentence, called also the "functional sentence perspective", is to reveal the correlative significance of the sentence parts from the point of view of their actual informative role in an utterance, i.e. from the point of view of the immediate semantic contribution they make to the total information conveyed by the sentence in the context of connected speech. In other words the actual division of the sentence in fact exposes its informative perspective.The term “actual division” has been described in cognitive grammar as focusing, profiling or grounding which consists in putting some conceptual content on stage to be immediately accessed by the listener, leaving the other part of the conceptual content in the background. The term “actual division” is sometimes mistakenly associated with the word order which has little of anything to do with it. It is more connected with the intonation rather than with grammar. The main components of the actual division of a sentence are the theme and the rheme. The theme is the starting point of communication, a thing or a phenomenon about which something is reported in the sentence; it usually contains some old, “already known” information. The rheme is the basic informative part of the sentence, its contextually relevant communicative center, the “peak” of communication, or the information reported about the theme; it usually contains some new information. There may be transitional parts of actual division of various degrees of informative value, neither purely thematic, nor rhematic; they can be treated as a secondary rheme, the “subrhematic” part of a sentence; this part is called “a transition” For example: Again Charlie is late. – Again (transition) Charlie(theme) is late (rheme). The rheme is the obligatory informative component of a sentence, there may be sentences which include only the rheme; the theme and the transition are optional.

16. The simple sentence. The principal and secondary parts of a simple sentence, the ways of their expression. Extended and non-extended sentences. One-member and two-member sentences. The notion of an elementary sentence and its transforms. Obligatory and optional elements in a sentence.

A sentence is a minimal group of words which expresses predication and used for the purpose of communication. Sentences can be classified according to the structure into simple, composite and semi-composite.

Simple sentences are monopredicative units. It means in their structure they must have 1 Subject to 1 Predicate: According to this definition, sentences with several predicates referring to one and the same subject cannot be considered as simple E.g.: The door was open, and also the front window.

The syntactic functions or the members of the sentence are traditionally divided into principal (main) and secondary. The principal parts of the sentence are the subject and the predicate, which modify each other: the subject is the “person” modifier of the predicate, and the predicate is the “process” modifier of the subject; they are interdependent. The secondary parts are: the object – a substance modifier of the predicate; the attribute – a quality modifier of substantive parts, either the subject or the object; the adverbial modifier – a quality modifier of the predicate. E.g.: The small lady listened to me attentively.

Simple sentences may be extended (ac.to Blokh - expanded) and non-extended (unexpanded), that is they may or may not have optional parts expressed in them. Obligatory parts of a sentence complement its structure without extending it. E.g. john looked at Mary. John looked nervously at Mary.

"Elementary sentence" is a sentence all the positions of which are obligatory. In other words, this is a sentence which, besides the principal parts, includes only complementive (дополнительные )modifiers.

The subject-group and the predicate-group of the sentence are its two constitutive "members", or, its "axes" (in the Russian grammatical tradition — «составы предложения»). According as both members are present in the composition of the sentence or only one of them, sentences are classed into "two-member" and "one-member" ones.

All simple sentences of English should be divided into two-axis constructions and one-axis constructions.

In a two-axis sentence, the subject axis and the predicate axis are directly and explicitly expressed in the outer structure. This concerns all the three cardinal communicative types of sentences. E.g.: The books come out of the experiences. What has been happening here? You better go back to bed.

In a one-axis sentence only one axis or its part is explicitly expressed, the other one being non-presented in the outer structure of the sentence. Cf.: "Who will meet us at the airport?" — "Mary." The response utterance is a one-axis sentence with the subject-axis expressed and the predicate-axis implied: → *Mary will meet us at the airport. This example belongs to "elliptical" type of utterance. Among the fixed one-axis sentences quite a few subclasses are to be recognised, including nominative (nominal) constructions, greeting formulas, introduction formulas, incentives, excuses, etc.