49.Composition: types of stem combination.

In linguistics, a compound is a lexeme (less precisely, a word) that consists of more than one stem. Compounding or composition is the process of word formation that creates compound lexemes (the other word-formation process being derivation). That is, in familiar terms, compounding occurs when two or more words are joined together to make them one word. The meaning of the compound may be very different from the meanings of its components in isolation.

Composition are words produced by combining two or more stems which occur in the language as free forms.

1. According to the parts of speech compounds are subdivided into:

a) nouns: baby-moon;

b) adjectives: power-happy;

c) adverbs: headfirst;

d) prepositions: into, within;

e) numerals: fifty-five.

2. According to the way components are joined together compounds are

subdivided into:

a) neutral, which are formed by joining together two stems without any

joining morpheme: ball-point;

b) morphological where components are joined by a linking element:

astrospace, handicraft, sportsman;

c) syntactical where components are joined by means of form-word stems,

e.g. do-or-die.

3.According to their structure compounds are subdivided into:

a) compound words proper which consist of two stems: to job-hunt, train-

sick;

b) compound-affixed words, where besides the stems we have affixes: ear-

minded, hydro-skimmer, astrophysical;

c) compound words consisting of three or more stems: cornflower-blue,

singer-songwriter;

d) compound-shortened words, e.g. V-day, Eurodollar, Camford.

4. According to the relations between the components compounds are

subdivided into:

a) subordinative compounds where one of the components is the semantic

centre and the structural centre and the second component is subordinate:

honey-sweet, gold-rich, love-sick, Tom-cat;

b) coordinative compounds where both components are semantically

independent. Here belong such compounds when one person (object) has

two functions. Such compounds are called additive: Anglo-Saxon,

woman-doctor. There are also tautological compounds.

50.Composition: types of stem repetition.

They are formed

by means of reduplication: no-no, fifty-fifty or with the help of rhythmic

stems: criss-cross, walkie-talkie.

51.Types of clipping.

In linguistics, clipping is the word formation process which consists in the reduction of a word to one of its parts (Marchand: 1969). Clipping is also known as "truncation" or "shortening."[1]

According to Marchand (1969), clippings are not coined as words belonging to the standard vocabulary of a language. They originate as terms of a special group like schools, army, police, the medical profession, etc., in the intimacy of a milieu where a hint is sufficient to indicate the whole. For example, exam(ination), math(ematics), and lab(oratory) originated in school slang; spec(ulation) and tick(et = credit) in stock-exchange slang; and vet(eran) and cap(tain) in army slang. While clipping terms of some influential groups can pass into common usage, becoming part of Standard English, clippings of a socially unimportant class or group will remain group slang.

Clipping mainly consists of the following types:

Back clipping is the most common type, in which the beginning is retained. The unclipped original may be either a simple or a composite. Examples are: ad (advertisement), cable (cablegram), doc (doctor), exam (examination), fax (facsimile), gas (gasoline), gym (gymnastics, gymnasium), memo (memorandum), mutt (muttonhead), pub (public house), pop (popular music).

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Fore-clipping

Fore-clipping retains the final part. Examples: chute (parachute), coon (raccoon), gator (alligator), phone (telephone), pike (turnpike), varsity (university).

In middle clipping, the middle of the word is retained. Examples are: flu (influenza), fridge (refrigerator), jams or jammies (pajamas/pyjamas), polly (apollinaris), shrink (head-shrinker), tec (detective).

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Complex clipping

Clipped forms are also used in compounds. One part of the original compound most often remains intact. Examples are: cablegram (cable telegram), op art (optical art), org-man (organization man), linocut (linoleum cut). Sometimes both halves of a compound are clipped as in navicert (navigation certificate). In these cases it is difficult to know whether the resultant formation should be treated as a clipping or as a blend, for the border between the two types is not always clear. According to Bauer (1983),[3] the easiest way to draw the distinction is to say that those forms which retain compound stress are clipped compounds, whereas those that take simple word stress are not. By this criterion bodbiz, Chicom, Comsymp, Intelsat, midcult, pro-am, photo op, sci-fi, and sitcom are all compounds made of clippings.