• Impossibility of having constant interpretations

• translation is a matter of subjective interpretation( предмет субъективного толкования)

• Impossibility to determine audience response to the source text when it was first produced.

Full Translation Equivalents – complete coincidence of all levels/grades of the source and target language unit

Partial Equivalence – absence of one or more of equivalence levels, i.e. syntactic, semantic, pragmatic, as well as textual norms and linguistic forms.

Levels

• Syntactic –similar syntactic functions

• Semantic – similar lexical meanings

• Pragmatic – similar message intent and reader response

• Textual norms – similar language features of the text (legal documents, etc.)

• Linguistic forms – devices such metaphors, rhyme, etc.

4. Basic approaches towards translation: transformational, denotative, and communicative. Outline the dependence of translation approaches on translation varieties.

• The transformational there are certain regular syntactic, morphological, and word-building structures which may be successfully matched with their analogies in another language during translation.

• The denotative approach - in the process of translation links between the forms of different languages are established via conceptual equivalence.

• The communicational approach - the matching of thesauruses.

Translation Type	Translation Method Priorities
Oral Consecutive	Denotative, Communicational
Oral Simultaneous	Transformational, Communicational
Written (general & technical)	Transformational
Written (fiction & poetry)	Denotative

The human translation theories may be divided into three main groups which quite conventionally may be called transformational approach – просто переводим слово, необходимо знание двух языков, denotative approach – передается смысл и значение слова, and communicational approach – при переводе учитывается кто сказал и его окружение.

In the transformational approach we shall distinguish three levels of substitutions: morphological equivalencies, lexical equivalencies, and syntac­tic equivalencies and/or transformations.

This type of translation is characteristic of any text, written or spoken, rather than only for poetry or high-style prose and the denotative approach is an attempt to explain such translation cases.

Though denotative approach to translation is based on the idea of denotatum (see above the relationship of signs, concepts and denotata), it has more relevance to that of a concept.

5. What is communication? What are the main components of communication? Show the difference between bilingual communication and translation. Communication is the activity of conveying information through the exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, visuals, signals, written, or behavior. Components- message, message sender, message recipient. Ender encode the message, recipient decode – use one code\message.

Monolingual – with one common language, bilingual - русско-украинский диалог (Decode and encode simultaneously)

Translation is a specific type of bilingual communication since (as opposed to bilingual communication proper) it obligatory involves a third actor (translator) and for the message sender and recipient the communication is, in fact, monolingual.

The difficulties in translations appear when the contest is upset. Some previous extra information or situation can be helpful during communication.

6. What is translation? Specify translation process: its basic components and stages.

Translation means both a process and a result, and when defining translation we are interested in both its aspects. In order to explain translation we need to compare the original (source) text and the resulting (target) one. However, the formation of the source and target texts is governed by the rules characteristic of the source and target languages. In translation we deal with two languages (two codes) and to verify the information they give us about the extralinguistic objects (and concepts) we should consider extralinguistic situation, and background informa­tion.

Translation – is function interaction of language

Translation stages:

• analysis of the source text, situation and background information,

• synthesis of the translation model, and

• verification of the model against the source and target context (semantic, grammatical, stylistic), situation, and background information resulting in the generation of the final target text.

6. Describe basic translation devices applied in direct translation.

Direct translation involves relatively straightforward strategies which require less intervention by the translator and less deviation from the ST.

1. Literal Translation ≠ word-for word translation;

45,3 % - journalistic texts, 39,6 % - technical texts

It involves producing a TT which reflects the content and features of the ST as closely as possible and only deviating from this where necessary in order to produce a TT which is grammatically correct and intelligible.

Can be: word-by-word, group-by-group, clause-by-clause

No any: additions, omissions, paraphrasing and etc.

2. Borrowing - transferring an SL lexical item into the TT without any form of modification except for transliteration.

Reasons:

• no existing word or concept in the TL

• Deliberate usage to create particular effect

Examples: Internet, email, pixel, Upstream, Downstream, looping, bypass.

3. Calque involves the literal translation of the individual constituent parts of an SL word or phrase to create a new term, or neologism, in the TL.

Examples: skyscraper, semi-conductor

Note: introducing new words without good reason is inadvisable, particularly where there are perfectly acceptable alternatives in the TL.

6. Describe basic translation devices applied in oblique translation.

Oblique translation is used when the grammatical, pragmatic and lexical differences between the SL and TL are too significant to allow direct translation.

Straightforward replacement is no longer useful because of the stylistic or linguistic features of the source text

1. Equivalence replicate the same situation as in the original whilst using completely different wording.

It is used when translating more directly would result in a translation which

• loses meaning or impact

• the idiomaticity or flow (set phrases)