In consecutive interpretation the interpretation follows the source utterance, whereas simultaneous interpretation is performed simultaneously with the original speech.

This time lag of the interpreter relative to the speaker is the main distinction of consecutive interpretation which determines the peculiarities of the approach and translation devices used by the interpreter.

In a similar way almost zero time lag of the interpreter during simultaneous interpretation is critical for the choice of translation devices and approaches. It determines the necessity of using special equipment for interpretation.

6. Written translation varieties: full technical translation, its stages.

Full total translation is a main type of technical translation. All technical and scientific materials are conveyed from one language to another due to this kind of translation. It consists of four important stages and violation of its sequence can significantly influence the translation quality.

Stage 1

At the first stage a translator should look through the text up to the very end. Sometimes it is necessary to read the whole text twice or three times in order to clarify the context he has to work within and to grasp the main idea of the original. In a case when a translator finds out that the information presented in the source text is of no interest to the customer, or client, he/ she must provide his/her doubts in writing. If there are no such questions a translator should continue his work on analyzing the text using all possible information sources: dictionaries, reference books and etc..

Stage 2

At the second stage a translator makes a draft copy of the translation through successive work with the source text parts which can be logically detached (paragraph, sentences, parts).

Stage 3

At the third stage a translator finally edits the whole text, reading it aloud or to oneself in order to check the adequacy of the language, style, quality of a target text and its uniformity.

When it comes to translation style means:

- Complex of individual linguistic peculiarities of the source text;

- Conventional (traditional) form/manner of expression;

- Quality of expression. In technical translation quality means accuracy, brevity, and simplicity and cleanness of used terminology.

There are several principles for technical translators to follow:

- When a source idea can be conveyed by several ways, chose the simplest and the most laconic one.

- if it is possible a foreign-origin word must be replaced by the native one;

- all mentioned terms and names must be clear and have one meaning.

Stage 4

Only at this stage a translator is to translate the title of the source text. In a case of fiction titles are not obligatory clear, in most cases they are rather obscure and unpredictable. Authors and translators try to make titles more appealing, humorous or thought-provoking. The purpose of a title in technical literature is slightly different. It contains the main idea of the text and that is the very reason for translating the title at the very end.

When four stages are completed the translated text must go through edition and proofreading which is done by a definite person who did not translate this text.

Editing: in modern parlance, this is used to refer to reviewing what was done in the previous step, i.e., review the translation performed of the original text in the previous step. At this stage, the task of an editor is not so much translation, but revising, segment by segment, that the translator has really made a faithful and accurate translation of the original and has fully understood the text and has not missed any of the information, and that there has not been any omission and any guidelines given by the customer have been followed.

Correction (Proofreading): In this stage, the translation and editing of the text have been done previously, and it is not necessary, in principle, to refer to the original text. This final review focuses primarily on the idea that the translated text read smoothly and sounds natural in the target language, in addition to detecting possible inconsistencies regarding capitalization and punctuation. Also, when dealing with documents that have a particular format, he or she may often detect typographical errors, issues related to images and fonts, etc.

13. Written translation varieties: summary and annotated translation

Summary or Gist Translation

As a full translation is one of the main and complete types of technical translation, other types are considered to be its short versions. One of such variants is so-called summary translation.

The purpose of translation is often to enable a reader to get an understanding of the key points of the original document - not for further distribution as a finished document. This is often the case for example in M&A transactions, or litigation discovery, when large volumes of material must be examined for relevance, but if a document is found to be irrelevant, there is no need for full translation.

In these cases, 'summary' or 'gist' translation is usually the most cost-effective approach. The purpose of summary translation is to create a short summary of the key points or messages of the source document in the target language (the translation of the selected parts of the source text) - not to create a full translation of every word of the original. The cost of creating a summarized translation is usually significantly lower than the cost of a full translation, and can be completed much faster.

Summary translation consists of the following 4 stages:

1. Scanning: a translator looks through the whole source text consulting special literature or reference books in order to grasp the main idea of the text and clear the meaning of its terminology.

2. Selection: a translator marks the text choosing the parts for translation and neglecting those which have no importance.

3. Reading: it is essential to read the selected parts of the source text to eliminate possible disproportion and incoherence.

4. Full translation: full translation of the selected parts is performed in accordance with the logics and structure of the whole original text.

In a case of a great number of pictures, diagrams and tables in the source text, a translator must mention in his translation only the most important ones, pointing at the fragment where this or that picture or diagram is provided in the source text.

What are the main written translation varieties? Specify annotated translation

Annotated translation - The main purpose of annotated translation is to annotate the source text in a target language. According to the dictionaries, annotation means a critical or explanatory note; a commentary.

Two types of annotations are distinguished:

1. Annotation of a book, or an article which provides a reader with a short characteristics of the original emphasizing main issues being discussed and sometimes estimating its rather critically.

2. Annotation of a foreign patent

Unlike patent annotation, the main purpose of book or article annotation is to provide the characteristics of the source text. It should be done in the following way. A translator should read the whole source text (an article or a book), then make its plan, specify its main issues or describe its structure and content. Only after this a translator can make an annotation which should not be more than 500 words regardless the length of the source text and should not convey the information presented in the text but describe it. There are no definite restrictions concerning the style of annotation it depends on the main purpose – to characterize the original text.

14. Translator’s false friends. Classification. The factors influencing translator’s choice of equivalent.

This term means a word that has the same or similar form in the source and target languages but another meaning in the target language. Translators false friends result from transferring the sounds of a source language word literally into the target language. P. Newmark calls them deceptive cognates, as their meanings are different and they can easily confuse the target text receptor.

Before any translation of proper names, it is necessary to specify them in relevant reference materials:

• Encyclopedia, referencebooks, geographical atlas and etc.;

• Legaldocuments(regulations, contracts);

• Personal opinion.

In a case of impossibility of verifying the translation of the proper names in the reference materials, a translator can deal with the following ways:

• Accurate meaning conveyance

• Pronunciation conveyance

• Combined method

Method 1.Accurate meaning conveyance

According to this method a literal (word by word translation) is applied, with final phrase being composed. For example, the name of the settlement«Красный серп» is translated as «Red sickle One of the main difficulties a translator may come across is the absence of semantic equivalence of source words in a target language

Method 2.Pronunciation conveyance

According to this method proper names are translated based on the rules of transliteration and transcription. Method method.3. Combined method.

Today this method which combines the first two methods is proved to be one of the most widely-spread. When applying this method, a translator tries to convey the meaning of the words in rather long names, and when it is impossible to convey the pronunciation of the words. Examples: «South park» = «Южныйпарк», «North Dakota» = «СевернаяДакота» ..

Factors:

1. The semantic factor resulting from the different subsequent development of the words borrowed by the two languages from the same source. For instance, the English "idiom" can be well rendered by its Russian counterpart to convey the idea of an expression whose meaning cannot be derived from the conjoined meanings of its elements but has developed such additional meanings as dialect (local idiom) and individual style (Shakespeare's idiom). When the word is used in either of these meanings its equivalent in Russian will not be «идиом», but «диалект, наречие» or «стиль», respectively.

2. The stylistic factor resulting from the difference in the emotive or stylistic connotation of the correlated words. For example, the English "ambitious" can be positive or negative but not neutral. The translator has to reject the pseudointernational substitute, i.e. амбиционный and to look for another way out, e. g.:

3. The co-occurrence factor reflecting the difference in the lexical combinability rules in the two languages. The choice of an equivalent is often influenced by the usage preferring a standard combination of words to the formally similar substitute. So, a "defect" has a formal counterpart in the Russian «дефект» but "theoretical and organizational defects" will be rather «теоретические и организационные просчеты». A "gesture" is usually translated as «жест» but the Russian word will not be used to translate the following sentence for the combinability factor:

4. The pragmatic factor reflecting the difference in the background knowledge of the members of the two language communities which makes the translator reject the formal equivalent in favour of the more explicit or familiar variant. The reader of the English original will usually need no explanation concerning the meaning of such terms as "the American Revolution", " the Reconstruction" or "the Emancipation Proclamation" which refer to the familiar facts of the US history. In the Russian translation, however, these terms are usually not replaced by their pseudointernational equivalents. Instead, use is made of the descriptive terms better known to the Russian reader:

14. What are the strategies in translating abbreviations and acronyms?

Abbreviations and acronyms

The primary motivation for using acronyms and abbreviations is brevity and to avoid repeated use of the same words. Abbreviations and acronyms are very useful in many cases but they can pose problems for readers and translators. We can group abbreviations and acronyms into a number of categories:

• International Organizations, such as NATO

• Name of Companies, such as ICI

• Technical Entities, such as GMT (

• Geographical Locations, such as USA

• Latin, such as q.e.d.

• Ad-hoc or specially coined acronyms,

The way in which they are dealt with is determined by various contextual fac¬tors such as the text type and age, readership, importance, the lifespan of the acronym and how well known they are.

Some acronyms and abbreviations are not unique and they can be used in other disciplines with different meanings attached to them; some are even shared within the same general area.

If a specialized acronym appears in a general text, it does not always need to be transferred intact - a translation and definition will generally work quite well. However, if the acronym appears in a specialized text, transfer and possibly definition are most appropriate courses of action.

Strategies

Naturally, the first and most appropriate strategy is to check the Internet to see if there is an existing authoritative translation. If you find one, use it. If not, you can do one of the following:

• Transfer. If the acronym is sufficiently well known you can retain the original SL acronym in the target text

• Reconstitute: Translate the full name into the TL and use this as the basis for creating an acronym in the TL This strategy is more suited to non-specialized acronyms, general texts or ad-hoc acronyms

• Define: If there is no way of transcribing or reconstituting the SL acro¬nym, if it is not possible to reconstitute the acronym or where it makes more sense in the text to explain the acronym, you can replace the acronym with a definition. This is quite a useful method for rendering Latin abbreviations and acronyms into language where Latin is not used or is unknown.

• Combine: A combination of the transfer and definition strategies. This will usually only need to be done once in a text when the acronym is first used; afterwards, the SL acronym can be used on its own.

• Write out SL: A much less common approach which involves replacing an acronym with its full name in the SL. This approach would be appropriate in higher level texts where the target audience is familiar with or interested in the source culture and language.

• Translate: If an official or widely used translation of the full name exists and there is a corresponding acronym, they can be used instead of the SL acronym.

What are the strategies in translating proper names, geographical names, names of the companies?

14. What are the strategies in translating proper names, geographical names, names of the companies?

In the case of contact names, if there is no title (such a Prof, or Dr.) and no indication of the gender of the person or if the name is unlikely to be recognized by a target language reader as belonging to a male or a female, using Ms. or Mr. is a useful way of helping readers avoid addressing women as Mr. and men as Ms. Admittedly, this is not an essential change but it does constitute a "value added" service for customers and it can spare readers' blushes.

Strategies: Personal names: Add the title Mr. or Ms., especially if it is unlikely to be clear to the target audience whether the person is male or female.

Rules for Translation of Geographical Names

In translating of geographical names a translator must follow the following rules:

1. Find conventional translation in geographical reference books

2. Literal translation

3. Transliteration.

4. Apply both literal translation and transliteration.

Translation of Company Names

The translation of companies’ manes can cause troubles for translators because of the absence of any possibility of finding an appropriate variant of translation in reference books. However, in accordance with translator’s ethics, compnyis’ names must be translated. It is dane by the following two methods:

• transliteration

• literal (word by word translation).

The first method is applied for translation of different commercial organizations and companies. The second one is applied for translations of names of non-commercial and state organizations.

Special attention should be paid to the translation of legal organizational form (type of business) of foreign companies. A translator should remember that the same legal organization forms can have different legal functions, structures and so on.. a translator can follow two ways:

• application of the term of a target country

• source name transcription.