- •2. The Noun. The Case. The Article Determination. The Category of Case of the Noun
- •5. The Periodization of the History of English
- •6. Extralinguistic and intralinguistic factors.
- •7. Establishment of the Spoken Standard
- •8. Communicative types of sentences. The Simple Sentence.
- •9. Listening comprehension skill
- •10. Main phonetic changes within the historical context.
- •Quantitative:
- •2 . Qualitative:
- •12. The Verb. Non-finite forms.
- •13. The Noun. Main characteristics
- •14. Developing reading skills
- •15. Classification of English consonants
- •17. Vocabulary development within the historical context.
- •18. Classification of English vowels
- •19. Developing writing skills
- •21. Varieties of the Spoken English
- •23. Developing speaking skills
- •25. The subject-matter of phonetics and phonology
- •26. Teaching phonetic, lexical, grammatical skills.
- •27. Productive and non-productive ways of formation
- •28. Language skill control.
- •30. Lesson
17. Vocabulary development within the historical context.
The older the word is, the better-developed its structure is and the more meanings it has. There are 2 causes of development of new meaning: historical/extralinguistic (social factors: changes in the culture, art, technology, way of thinking, historical events); linguistic factors proper (when 1 meaning of the word changes under the influence of the newly-appeared synonyms).
Transference is the process of creating new meanings – the old meaning is transferred to another one which can be wider or narrower. Transference can be based on: ●resemblance (linguistic metaphor- a new meaning appears as a result of associating 2 objects due to their outward similarity. E.g. a branch of science; the hand of a clock.); ●contiguity, that is similarity may be found through analysis and comparison (metonymy. E.g. factory hands).
Broadening presupposes generalization of the original meaning. (E.g. ‘pen’ first meant ‘a feather’, now the meaning has widened).
Narrowing is based on making a new meaning more specialized. (E. g. ‘deer’ first meant ‘any kind of animal’, now it means ‘a special kind’).
Degradation and elevation of meaning. In the course of time the meanings of a word may acquire positive or negative connotations. E.g. ‘nice’ in Old English meant ‘silly’. The meaning has gone through elevation.
18. Classification of English vowels
English vowels are classified according to the following principles:
1) stability of articulation (it specifies the actual position of the articulating organ in the process of the articulation of a vowel); according to this principle vowels are classed into monophthongs/i,e,a:/, diphthongs/ei,au/ and diphthongoids/i:,u:/;eng. Monophthongs are characterized by the relative stability of the tongue position and they are called pure vowels. In articulation of diphth. The tongue runs from 1 position to another). 2) tongue position. According to the horizontal movement vowels are classed into front(I,e,ea), front-retracted(I,ie), central(ə, Л), back(u:) and back-advanced(u,ue,a:).According to the vertical movement three classes of vowels are distinguished: high (or close:i:,u:), mid (or half-open: e,з:) and low (or open: a:, schwa,ae) vowels. 3) lip position: rounded – u,u:), unrounded –the rest.4) vowel length; on this ground the English monophthongs are traditionally divided into two varieties: short(I,schwa,e) and long(i:,a:,u:) vowels.5)character of the vowel end.it depends on the character of the articulatory transition from a vowel to a consonant. According to this principle vowels are divided into checked and unchecked (or free); all short vowels are checked when stressed, all long vowels are free.6)tenseness characterizes the state of the organs of speech at the moment of vowel production. We distinguish tense and lax vowels. Historically long vowels are tense, while historically short vow. are lax.