19. Developing writing skills

Writing implies the successful transmission of ideas from an addresser or to an addressee via a text and encourages the development of language skills.

Micro-skills involved in writing. The writer needs to:

▪use the orthography correctly, including the script, and spelling and punctuation conventions.▪use the correct forms of words.▪put words together in correct word order.

▪use vocabulary correctly.▪use the style appropriate to the genre and audience.▪make the main sentence constituents, such as subject, verb, and object, clear to the reader.▪make the main ideas distinct from supporting ideas or information.▪make the text coherent, so that other people can follow the development of the ideas.▪judge how much background knowledge the audience has on the subject, etc.

Value of writing: wr-g reinforces the knowledge of grammar, vocabulary, spelling; fulfills the communicative purpose – conveys info, expresses feelings, ideas. Traditional classroom writing involves: group brainstorming on a topic; collaborative writing; individual essays; writing workshops or in-class writing.

20. Classification of parts of speech The words of language, depending on their various formal and semantic features, are divided into grammatical classes. These traditional grammatical classes of words are called - parts of speech.

In modern linguistics, parts of speech are discriminated on the basis of the three criteria: "semantic" (presupposes the evaluation of the generalised meaning, which is characteristic of all the subsets of a part of speech. This meaning is understood as the "categorial meaning of the part of speech"), "formal" (concerns specific inflexional and derivational (word-building) features of all the subsets of a part of speech), and "functional" (concerns the syntactic role of words in the sentence typical of a part of speech). On the upper level of classification parts of speech are divided into: - notional parts of speech (the noun, the adjective, the numeral, the pronoun, the verb, the adverb); - functional parts of speech (words of incomplete nominative meaning and non-self-dependent, mediatory functions in the sentence: the article, the preposition, the conjunction, the particle, the modal word, the interjection).

The article expresses the specific limitation of the substantive functions.

The preposition expresses the dependencies and interdependences of substantive referents.

The conjunction expresses connections between the parts of the sentences.

The particle unites the functional words of specifying and limiting meaning. The particle has two types. They are: the particle to (to-infinitive; ought to); and post- positives (they are short words that usually come after the verb and give the verb some extra meaning: to give up).

The modal word expresses the attitude of the speaker to the reflected situation and its parts. Here belong the functional words of probability (for example: probably, perhaps, etc.), of qualitative evaluation (for example: fortunately, unfortunately, luckily, etc.), and also of affirmation and negation.

The interjection occupies a detached position in the sentence and its meaning is a signal of emotions.

Each part of speech is further divided into subcategories. Thus, nouns are subcategorised into: proper and common, animate and inanimate, countable and uncountable, concrete and abstract, etc.