Reading and writing
Task 6. Read the text to answer the following questions:
Is it easy to define the term globalization?
When did globalization start?
When did the term globalization begin to be widely used?
What is globalization often compared with?
How can distant events and forces have impact on local affairs?
How does globalization influence time and boundaries?
How are the modern technologies connected with globalization?
Globalization
Globalization became the trendiest craze in international relations (IR) theory at the turn of the century. What is globalization? That’s a good question, and one that scholars in and out of IR have had difficulty grappling with. Globalization has been described as “a term which can refer to anything from the Internet to a hamburger”. That’s because theorists disagree on just about everything regarding “globalization”. They disagree about when “globalization” started. Some date its beginning after World War II, while others argue it is as old as capitalism itself. They disagree about what it expresses (economic, geographic, social, political, or cultural phenomena) and whether or not one or more of these phenomena should be emphasized over the others. And they disagree about whether “globalization” is a process, an ideology (“globalism”), or a “state of being” (“globality”). Given all these disagreements, it is not surprising that one theorist described “globalization” as simply “a floating sign of many different problematics”.
But what exactly are we talking about when we talk about globalization? “Globalization” is a relatively new term. Although it made its dictionary debut in 1961, it was rarely used until the 1980s, when it began appearing in academic literature with increasing frequency. Despite the pervasiveness of the term today, it remains ambiguous and contested, perhaps because it is used in many different ways to support a variety of competing interests. Some believe globalization is intrinsically “good,” others believe it is inherently “bad,” and still others assert that while it is intrinsically neither good nor bad, it can have both positive and negative effects. Some conflate globalization with internationalization, while others equate it with Westernization. Some view globalization as a new phenomenon driven primarily by new technologies, such as satellites, cell phones, and the Internet, while others see it as an extension of ongoing processes that encompass all of human history. Scholars from a variety of disciplines have weighed in on the term, developing their own definitions of, and theories about, globalization. Manfred B. Steger, a Professor of Global Studies at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, has developed a particularly useful definition that synthesizes the definitions of a number of prominent scholars. According to Steger: “Globalization refers to a multidimensional set of social processes that create, multiply, stretch, and intensify worldwide social interdependencies and exchanges while at the same time fostering in people a growing awareness of deepening connections between the local and the distant”.
Steger’s
definition of globalization also highlights connections between the
local and the global. In an interconnected world, distant events and
forces can have a profound impact on local endeavours.
Unexpected connections frequently emerge, some of which may be
experienced positively by most who are affected by the connection,
and others of which have devastating consequences for one or more
affected groups. The link between consumer demand for electronic
devices and a bloody civil war in the Democratic Republic of Congo
(DRC) is one such tragic example. This connection between war and
electronics emerged because the DRC holds percent of the world’s
coltan reserves. Though not a household word, coltan has become one
of the world’s most valued materials. Refined coltan produces
tantalum, a metal powder used in the production of capacitors, which
are critical components in electronic devices like cell phones and
laptop computers. One might think that the abundance of such a
valuable mineral would benefit the DRC, but, unfortunately, coltan
has been mined by warring rebel groups and used to finance a
devastating civil war. The conflict, which started in 1998, has
claimed more than 4 million lives.
Another common theme frequently discussed by globalization scholars is the compression of time. Globalization disrupts not only traditional spatial boundaries but also temporal ones, increasing the velocity of social activity. For example, high-speed communication and transportation technologies compress time, enabling “fast flows and movements of people, information, capital, and goods”.
Clearly, the accelerations discussed above were made possible by the development of new technologies. The Internet in particular has intensified and extended global connections and interdependencies since coming to prominence in the 1990s. Many scholars are quick to point out, however, that although the technologies that have accelerated globalization in recent years are new, the processes of globalization have a much longer history. How far back can we trace the processes of globalization? This remains an open question. The answer depends upon how far back one is interested in tracing the history of human migration, social networks, and technological innovation. One early globalization milestone was the settling of all five continents, a feat accomplished approximately 12,000 years ago when hunter-gatherers first reached the tip of South America, thus accomplishing “the truly global dispersion of our species”. The invention of writing between 3500 and 2000 BC and the invention of the wheel around 3000 BC are also frequently cited as important moments in the history of globalization, as they were crucial developments that facilitated technological progress and social exchanges. Other significant globalization developments include the establishment of trading routes, such as the Silk Road, which linked the Chinese and Roman Empires, and the development of boats that could withstand long ocean voyages, establishing trade networks among some of the most populous regions of Europe, Asia, and Africa. These trade routes in turn triggered waves of migration, leading to population increases in urban centres.
Clearly, globalization processes can be traced back as far as one is willing to follow the migratory flows and technological inventions that have played a role in enhancing, multiplying, and extending social connections and compressing space and time. The perspective adopted by some scholars, then, that globalization is as old as humanity, is important, because it acknowledges that globalization processes are gradual and that they have a long history.
Task 7. Write a short summary of the text in about 100-150 words.
Task 8. Translate the following sentences into English.
1. Вивчення глобалізації охоплює аналіз соціальних, політичних та економічних процесів. 2. Деякі вчені датують початок глобалізації періодом Другої світової війни, в той час як інші стверджують, що цей процес розпочався значно швидше. 3. Вчені розходяться в думках про те, чи глобалізація є процесом, ідеологією, чи станом. 4. Глобалізація руйнує просторові та часові межі, збільшуючи темпи життя. 5. Одні теоретики вважають, що глобалізація є позитивним процесом, інші вважають, що за своєю суттю вона “погана”, а треті стверджують, що вона може мати як позитивні, так і негативні сторони. 6. На зламі століть термін глобалізація увійшов у широкий вжиток. 7. Дехто прирівнює глобалізацію до інтернаціоналізації, а інші ототожнюють її з вестернізацією. 8. Конфлікт, який розпочався в 1998 році, забрав більше 4 мільйонів життів і показав глибокий вплив глобалізації на життя людей у всьому світі. 9. Високошвидкісні комунікаційні та транспортні технології стискають час, пришвидшуючи потік інформації, капіталу і товарів. 10. Глобалізація стала модним захопленням в теорії міжнародних відносин на рубежі століть. 11. Визначення глобалізації залежить від того, наскільки далеко ми можемо простежити історію людської міграції, соціальних мереж і технологічних інновацій. 12. Формування великих торгових шляхів викликало хвилі міграції, що призвело до зростання міського населення. 13. Винайдення письма є важливим моментом в історії, оскільки воно сприяло передачі інформації. 14. Глобалізація – це складний набір соціальних процесів. 15. Незважаючи на зусилля вчених, цей термін залишається спірним.
Task 9. Read the text and find the English equivalents of the following phrases:
1. культурні відмінності; 2. міжнародна торгівля наркотиками; 3. глобальні ринкові сили; 4. характеристики, які можна визначити; 5. раціоналізував і виробництво, і розподіл; 6. зростаюче усвідомлення; 7. майже миттєвий; 8. що формують майбутнє; 9. чинити свій вплив; 10. спілкування через територіальні межі.
Globalization has certain identifiable characteristics, although there is no consensus in the field about any of them! In the first place, it involves a growing consciousness of the world as a single place. This is reflected in phrases such as ‘the global village’ and ‘the global economy’. Few places are more than a day’s travel away and communication across territorial borders is now almost instantaneous. In 1980 there were about 1 million international travellers per day. In 2000 more than 3 million people crossed territorial borders as tourists each day. And in 2003, the WTO estimated that global tourism generated nearly US$693 billion.
Second, new information and communications technology has improved access to overseas markets and streamlined both the production and distribution of goods and the trade in foreign exchange. Third, human beings are becoming more and more dependent upon one another as problems such as global warming, the international drugs trade, and terrorism can only be managed through greater cooperation at a supranational level. Fourth, some observers argue that globalization is erasing cultural differences. Sociologists, for example, like to talk about the Coca-Colaisation or McDonaldisation of global culture.
Finally, some observers claim that the sovereign state’s capacity for independent political action is weakened by globalization. Today, domestic economic policy is subject to global market forces. The state has little effective influence or control over these forces. Any state that tries to exert its influence risks disinvestment, capital flight, and recession. In short, globalization involves a radical transformation of existing economic and political structures in international relations. It involves an aspiration to think and act globally and an acknowledgement that humanity cannot effectively be ordered along geographical lines. To talk about globalization, then, is not only to embark on a description of the present, but involves a comprehension of the forces shaping the future. In this sense it is a multidimensional, complex, and dynamic concept.
Task 10. Write an essay in about 120-180 words describing the advantages and disadvantages of globalization process in your country.