§ 6. Object clauses perform the function of an object to the predicate-verb of the principal clause.

I don’t know what you are talking about. (Gow and D’Ussean)

An object clause may also refer to a non-finite form of the verb, to an adjective, or to a word belonging to the part of speech expressing state.

I formed the habit of calling in on him in the evening to discuss what I had heard. (Leacock)

Object clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following ways:

(a) by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether.

Time will show whether I am right or wrong. (Collins)

(b) by means of the connectives who, which, what, whatever, whoever, whichever (conjunctive pronouns); where, when, how, why (conjunctive adverbs).

I’ll do just what I say. (Dreiser)

(c) asyndetically.

An object clause may be introduced by a preposition.

I am always ready to listen to whatever you may wish to disclose. (Eliot)

I found it hard to keep my mind on what the colonel was saying. (Greene)

An object clause is sometimes preceded by the introductory object it.

I insist upon it that you tell me what you mean. (Trollope)

As a rule object clauses are not separated by a comma from the principal clause. A comma may or may not be used if the object clause precedes the principal clause.

What I used not to like, I long for now. (Eliot)

If we have two or more homogeneous object clauses they are separated from each other by a comma.

I can’t tell you what tricks they performed, or how they did it. (Collins)

A sentence containing direct speech consists of two independent clauses.

“I don’t deserve to be mocked at,” she said in a stifled voice. (Lindsay)

“Well,” I thought, “at any rate, judging by the smell, the food must be good.”

§ 7. Attributive clauses serve as an attribute to a noun (pronoun) in the principal clause. This noun or pronoun is called the antecedent of the clause.

According to their meaning and the way they are connected with the principal clause attributive clauses are divided into

- relative

- appositive.

Attributive relative clauses qualify the antecedent.

Attributive appositive clauses disclose (выявлять) its meaning.

The facts those men were so eager to know had been visible, tangible, open to the senses. (Conrad) (ATTRIBUTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSE)

The fortunate fact that the rector’s letter did not require an immediate answer would give him time to consider. (Hardy) (ATTRIBUTIVE APPOSITIVE CLAUSE)

Attributive relative (соотносительный) clauses are joined to the principal clause syndetically — by means of connectives, and asyndetically;

Attributive appositive (приложение) clauses only syndetically — by means of conjunctions.

§ 8. Attributive relative clauses can be

- restrictive (ограничивающий)

- non-restrictive or descriptive.

1. An attributive relative restrictive clause restricts the meaning of the antecedent. It cannot be removed without destroying the meaning of the sentence. It is not separated by a comma, from the principal clause because of its close connection with it.

Attributive relative restrictive clauses are introduced by:

(a) relative pronouns (who, whose, which, that, as¹ );

(b) relative adverbs (where, when);

(c) asyndetically.

¹ As introduces attributive clauses when the demonstrative pronoun such is used in the principal clause.

All that could be done had been done. (Dreiser)

He sang a loud song... such a song as the Spanish wagoneers sing in Algeria.

2. An attributive relative non-restrictive clause does not restrict the meaning of the antecedent; it gives some additional information about it. It can be left out without destroying the meaning of the sentence. As the connection between the principal clause and the attributive non-restrictive clause is loose, they are often separated by a comma.

Attributive relative non-restrictive clauses are in most cases introduced syndetically by means of:

(a) relative pronouns (who, which);

(b) relative adverbs (where, when).

Mr. Prusty, who kept no assistant, slowly got off his stool. (Cronin)

He went in alone to the dining-room where the table was laid for one.

The relative pronoun that is hardly ever used to introduce an attributive relative non-restrictive clause.

He had emotion, fire, longings, that were concealed behind a wall of reserve.

A variant of the attributive non-restrictive clause is the continuative clause, whose antecedent is not one word but a whole clause. Continuative clauses are always separated from the principal clause by a comma.

A continuative clause is introduced by the relative pronoun which, rendered in Russian by the pronoun что.

Mr. Manston was not indoors, which was a relief to her. (Hardy)

N o t e. — The connection between the attributive continuative clause and the

principal clause is so loose that it is doubtful whether we have here a

subordinate or a coordinate clause; it may be considered a borderline case

between subordination and coordination.