Verbs followed by gerund or infinitive

1. Verbs followed by infinitive only: agree, appear, arrange, ask, choose, decide, demand, encourage, fail, forbid, force, hope, instruct, invite, learn, manage, offer, order, permit, persuade, plan, prepare, pretend, promise, refuse, remind, seem, swear, warn.

He decided to study at university.

We hoped to find it.

Did he seem to like it?

I ordered my son to send it.

2. Expressions and phrasal verbs followed by infinitive: be about, do one's best, make up one's mind, set out, turn out.

He was about to start.

I did my best to learn it.

I haven't made up my mind to start yet.

It turned out to be your car.

We set out to cut the tree.

3. The verbs followed by gerund only: admit, consider, delay, dislike, enjoy, escape, excuse, finish, forgive, imagine, insist, keep, mind, miss, practice, prevent, risk, suggest, understand.

She admitted telling him.

Did you escape writing the test?

I don't want to risk coming late.

4. Expressions and phrasal verbs followed by gerund: be against, be interested in, can't stand, can't help, care for, give up, look forward to, it's no use/good, it's worth.

I can't stand waiting for hours.

I can't help laughing.

Don't give up studying this chapter.

It's no use working so late.

Is the film worth seeing?

Verbs followed by infinitives and gerunds.

A. With the same meaning: begin, advise, allow, can't bear, continue, intend, it requires, it needs, it wants, permit, recommend, start .

Did you continue driving/to drive?

He can't bear smoking/to smoke.

B. The verbs that have a different meaning with gerund or infinitive.

Теми для співбесіди:

1. Botany

3.2 History of Botany

3.3 Phytopharmacy

Botany

Botany is the study of plants. It is one of the two main areas of biology. Botany includes taxonomy, morphology, cytology and histo­logy, physiology, plant ecology, pathology.

Taxonomy is the science of naming and classifying animals and plants. It groups plants according to their relationships with each oth­er. Taxonomy is also concerned with the study of plant remains.

Morphology, the study of the form and structure of plants, is the basis of taxonomy. It is necessary to study the form and structure of a plant before you can understand how to classify the plant and how it grows and lives.

Cytology is the study of the cells, of which plants, like all living things, are made. The simplest plants consist of a single cell. Large plants, like trees, are made up of many different kinds of cells. While cytology studies the cell itself, histology studies different kinds of cells and the way they are arranged within plants. Both cytology and histo­logy are branches of plant morphology. .

Physiology is the study of plants functioning. It involves the study of how plants produce and use food, how various cells of a plant help the plant grow and reproduce, and how a plant responds to the outside world. Plants take materials from the soil and air and transform them into food. This food is then used to provide energy for the plants to grow and materials for the growing plant body. These processes are called metabolism.

Plant physiology is important not only to the experts, who study plants, but also to everyone else in the world, as plants produce, either directly or indirectly, all the food that human beings and animals eat. Except for certain species of bacteria, plants are the 6nly organisms that can make their own food. They do so by the process of photosyn­thesis. As a result, plants form the base of the natural food chain — the system, in which energy is transferred from one organism to another in the form of food.

Plant ecology is the study of plants growing together under vari­ous conditions, such as in swamps, grasslands, deserts, or forests. It also includes the study of the effects of climate, water supply, and soil on plant growth. Ecology is also concerned with the way plants and animals affect each other, and with solving the problems of for­estry, growing of crops, conservation, and control of insects and diseases.

Pathology is concerned with many diseases that injure plants. Sometimes plant diseases are caused by the weather or by a lack of proper minerals in the soil. More often they are caused by bacteria or germs like those that cause many human diseases, or by fungi. Fungi lack chlorophyll, the green pigment that is essential in photosynthesis, and so must get food from other plants to keep themselves alive. In doing so, they often damage or even kill other plants.

To help plants combat diseases, plant pathologists study normal plants to find out how they function. They also study plants and ani­mals. Plant pathology uses chemicals to combat diseases. It tries to control the growing conditions of plants or to develop the kinds of plants that resist diseases.

History of Botany

People have always been interested in plants and used them in many ways. Prehistoric people gathered wild plants for food and used them to build shelters. By about 8000 B.C. people in the Middle East had begun to depend on cultivated plants for most of their food. Pre­historic people also used plants for medicine. Ancient Greeks and Romans made the first scientific studies of plants. Greek philosopher Aristotle, who lived during the 300's B.C., collected information about most of the then-known plants of the world. His pupil Theophrastus classified and named these plants. Theophrastus is often called the father of botany. Pliny the Elder, a Roman naturalist and writer who lived from 23 to 79 A.D., recorded many facts about plants in his 37-volume reference work Historis Naturalis (Natural History).

The development of modern botany began from the Renaissance. During that period, European exploration of the world greatly stimu­lated the study of botany and other sciences. Explorers discovered many new kinds of plants and brought them to scholars to examine and identify.

As trade increased, there was added a demand to sorts of plant products, such as foods, fibres, drugs and dyes. Great gardens were laid out and contained new plants. As a result of the increased number of plants and the new facts that were being discovered about them, old systems of plants naming and classifying proved to be inadequate. In the middle of the 18^th century Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus (1707—1778) developed a system of naming plants that was eventually accepted as a standard classification system. Linnaeus used a bino­mial system of nomenclature, in which each plant has a unique name consisting of two parts. This system has been modified and expanded into the modern classification system.

The study of plant morphology made tremendous advances during the 1600's, after the development of the compound Microscope. The first scientists to observe the microscopic structures of plants included Marcello Malpighi from Italy and Englishmen Robert Hook and Nehemiah Grew. Also during the 1600's, research on plant physiology began with the work of Johann Baptista van Helmont, a Flemish doc­tor and chemist. Van Helmont made discoveries on how plants obtain food and grow.

The study of plant ecology developed from the research on the geographical distribution of plants. German naturalist and geographer Alexander von Humboldt mapped plant distribution during his travels around the world in the late 1700's and early 1800's.

The research by Austrian botanist Gregor Mendel during the sec­ond half of the 1800's had a tremendous impact on the study of bot­any and other fields of science. His experiments on the breeding of garden peas established the basic laws of heredity.

In the 1900's the scientists working in plant genetics and molecu­lar biology made many spectacular discoveries. For example, through the research on maize, it was found that certain genes can move around within the chromosomes of cells. This discovery, announced in 1951, greatly added to the understanding of how plants and other organisms inherit their traits.

In 1954, chloroplasts (tiny capsules containing chlorophyll) were made to carry out photosynthesis outside plant cells. This discovery raised the possibility that sugar and other foods might be made artifi­cially, which would reduce our dependence on plants.

Plants maintain the living environment. Without plants, the con­centration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere would increase to the point where human beings and animals suffocate. Studying plant life can show people how to live in balance with the environment. Certain physical principles operate throughout all living organisms. Thus, fur­ther study of plants can increase our understanding of all forms of life.

Phytopharmacy

Phytopharmacy is the study of the plants that are used as drugs that are isolated from plants. Medicinal plants are important for many reasons: they provide us with natural drugs, active constituents and intermediates for semi-synthetic drugs. Nature pro­duces an astonishing variety of complex phytoconstituents which em­brace all fields of pharmacological action.

Plants are constantly metabolising, both breaking down preformed molecules and building new ones at the same time. Besides their own essential principles, the so-called primary plant products, plants pro­duce other principles, which apparently do not have any definite bio­logical function. These are the so-called secondary products. Their biological function is often discussed but the fact is that many of them have a special importance outside the plant because of their pharma­cological action. Plants that give drugs have both active and inactive substances. The inactive substances include cellular structures and pharmacological inactive compounds.

A plant seldom has only one active principle. Often it produces a series of structurally related compounds having similar pharmacologi­cal properties. In this case it is possible to use either the total princi­ples or the isolated and chemically pure compounds. This situation may be complicated when there are synergistic or antagonistic prin­ciples or substances with other pharmacological effects in the plant at the same time. Also the inactive compounds may interfere with the action of the active ones or they may be their precursors. The inactive principles may alter the activity of the drug by physical means, for example, they may act as co-solvents of the active compounds or de­lay their absorption or diffusion in the organism.

Drugs in general arise from a heterogeneous population of indi­vidual plants living under a variety of conditions. Therefore, it is not surprising that their quality is affected by their variability, which is due to two main causes: intrinsic (endogenous) factors inherent to the genetic constitution and independent of external conditions; and ex­trinsic (exogenous) factors dependent on the ecological and environ­mental conditions in which the plant grows. Sometimes intrinsic fac­tors are latent in the plant and only appear as a response to the ap­propriate external factors.

Grammar