- •1.2 The way of a scientific theory formation
- •1.3 Types and features of scientific research
- •1.4 Research elements
- •1.5 Methodology and methods of research
- •1.6 General scientific methods of research
- •1.6.1 Methods of empirical research
- •1.6.2 Methods of theoretical knowledge
- •1.6.3 General logical methods and techniques of research
- •2.1 Scientific research technology
- •2.2 Selection of the theme of scientific research and definition of a working hypothesis
- •2. Technology of the Scientific research
- •Requirements to the selected theme
- •2.3 Definition of objectives, tasks, object and subject of study
- •2.4 Theoretical and applied research implementation
- •3 Work on writing scientific articles, monographs, reports and presentations
- •3.2 Scientific article
- •3.3 Rules for compiling the bibliographic description
- •3.4 Citation in scientific papers
- •3.5 Master's thesis
- •3.5.3 Work on the text of the master's work
- •Literature
1.6.1 Methods of empirical research
These include observation, experiment, comparison, description, measurement.
Observation is focused on the study of objects. It is mainly based on the data of the senses (sensation, perception, representation). During the observation the knowledge is obtained not only on the external side of the object but also of its essential properties.
The observation may be direct and indirect. The latter is carried out through a variety of devices and equipment and is becoming more complex with the development of science.
Experiment is a purposeful and active intervention in the course of the process under study. During the experiment, the corresponding changes are involved to the object or its reproduction in the specially created and controlled conditions.
The main stages of the experiment are:
— planning and building;
— control;
— interpretation of the results.
The experiment has two interrelated functions:
1. The experimental verification of hypotheses and theories,
2. The formation of new scientific concepts.
Depending on the functions of these, the experiments are divided to:
— research (search) experiments,
— screening experiments.
So, the experiment is the most common method of empirical knowledge, which not only includes observation and measurement but also has a permutation, exchange the object of study and so on. In the experimental method, the researcher can detect the influence of one factor on another.
The empirical methods are not only the basis for the consolidation of theoretical assumptions but often they are the subject of new discoveries, new scientific research.
Comparison is a cognitive operation that underlies the inferences about the similarities or differences between objects. With comparisons qualitative and quantitative characteristics of objects are revealed.
Identity and difference are simple and important types of relations, that are in the course of comparison. This comparison has a meaning only in a set of homogeneous objects, which form a class. Such a class is a logical basis for such an method as an analogy.
Description is a cognitive operation that consists in fixing the results of the experiment (or observation) with certain signs, that are taken in science.
Measurement is a set of actions that are performed using measurement tools in order to find the numerical value of the measured value, which is taken in some standard units.
1.6.2 Methods of theoretical knowledge
The methods of theoretical knowledge are:
formalization,
axiomatic method,
hypothetical-deductive method and
ascent from the abstract to the concrete.
Formalization is a reflection of knowledge in semantic-symbolic form (formalized language). The formalized language is created for the exact expression of opinions in order to exclude the possibility of ambiguous understanding. When the formalization is used, then the thinking about objects is carried in the plane of operating with signs (formulas).
The formal (artificial) language is designed for more accurate and precise expression of values. The formula language becomes a tool of knowledge.
Axiomatic method is a method of constructing a scientific theory, which is based on some initial positions — axioms (postulates). All the rest of the statements of this theory is derived from the axioms purely logically by evidence. For the deriving a theorem from the axioms (and even some formulas from others) a special set of rules is used.
Hypothetical-deductive method is a method, the essence of which is to establish a system of deductively interrelated hypotheses, which results are the statements about empirical facts. This method is based on the deductions from hypotheses and other relations, the true meaning of which is unknown. This means that the conclusion derived from this method has only probable character.
From a logical point of view, the hypothetical-deductive method is a hierarchical set of hypotheses. And the degree of abstraction and generality of these hypotheses increases as their distance increases from the empirical facts.
Ascent from the abstract to the concrete is a method of theoretical research and presentation, which is based on the movement of thought from the initial abstraction (one-sided, incomplete knowledge) through successive stages of deepening and expanding the knowledge to the result, which is an integral reproduction of the studied object.