33) How are consonants grouped according to the work of the vocal cords ?

Accoring to the work of the vocal cords and the force of exhalation cons-s are subdevided into voiced and voiceless. Voiced: [b, d, g]; voiceless: [p, t, k,]. The force of exhalation and the degree of muscular tension are greater in the production of voiceless cons-s. Therefore they are called by the Latin word fortis, which means strong, energetic. Voiced cons-s are called lenis, which means soft, weak. Because the force of exhalation and the degree of muscular tension in their articulation are weaker, e.g.fortis: [p] – pipe, [t] – tight, Lenis: [b] – Bible, [d] – died.

The Eng cons-s [h, m, n, , l, w, j, r] don’t enter into fortis-lenis oppositions.

34) How are consonants grouped according to the position of the soft palate?

According to the position of the soft palate all cons are subdivided into oral and nasal. When the soft palate is raised and the air into the mouth cavity oral cons are produced /p,t.k,f,v/. When the soft palate is lowered and the air on its way out passes through the nasal cavity, nasal cons are produced /m,n ŋ/.

35) How are vowels grouped according to the position of the tongue?

Vowels may be classified according to the how far the tongue is from the roof of the mouth during articulation, and how far back in the oral cavity the vowel is articulated.

If the lower jaw is relatively low (that is, if the mouth is relatively widely open), the tongue will be relatively far from the roof of the mouth. Vowels for which the jaw is relatively low during articulation are called, unsurprisingly, low vowels; and vowels for which the jaw is relatively high (the mouth is more nearly closed) are called high vowels. This distinction can be appreciated, for example, by gripping the chin and successively articulating "ha-ha, hee-hee, ha-ha, hee-hee." The phoneme spelled a in ha is a low vowel, and the phoneme spelled ee in hee is a high vowel. The jaw can be felt to move up and down correspondingly.

36) How are vowels grouped according to the position of the lips?

According to the position of the lips vowels are classified into: (a) rounded, (b) unrounded, The Russian rounded vowels are pronounced with more lip protrusion than the English rounded vowels. The English rounded vowels are: /u — u:, и — о:/, the Russian rounded and protruded vowels are: /о, у/. The general pattern is that the front and open vowels are articulated with spread to neutral lip position

while back vowels have rounded lips. The rounding tends to be more worked with closer tongue height.

37) How are vowels grouped according to the length?

The following English vowels may be describe as long: [i:], [a:], [o:], [u:], [з:].

The following English vowels may be describe as short: [i], [e], [ə],[][ʌ], [ʋ], [æ].

38) How are vowels grouped according to the degree of tenseness?

According to the degree of tenseness vowels are divided into tense and lax.

Tense vowels are produced when the organs of speech are tense.

All the English short vowels are tense: [i:],[α:], [u:],[?:],[з:]

Lax vowels are those which produced with lesser tenseness of the speech organs.

All the English short vowels are lax, [i],[e],[æ],[ʋ],[α],[ʌ],[ə].