8. Interaction of primary dictionary and contextual meaning.

The interaction or interplay between the primary dictionary meaning & a meaning which is imposed on the word by a micro-context may be maintained along different lines.

One line is when the author identifies 2 objects which have nothing in common, but in which he subjectively sees a function, a property, a feature or a quality that may make the reader perceive these two objects as identical.

Another line is when the author finds it possible to substitute one object for another on the grounds that there is some kind of interdependence or interrelation between the two corresponding objects.

A third line is when a certain property or quality of an object is used in an opposite or contradictory sense.

The stylistic device based on the principle of identification of two objects is called a metaphor. The SD based on the principle of substitution of one object for another is called metonymy and the SD based on contrary concepts is called irony.

Metaphor is the interaction between the logical and contextual logical meanings of a word which is based on a likeness between objects and implies analogy and comparison between them.

Similar to all lexical stylistic devices metaphor may be genuine, that is original, invented by the writer, or trite, that is hackneyed, often used in the language. Metaphor suggests an analogy. An implied analogy and likeness to concrete objects makes abstract ideas more concrete, complex ideas more simple and the thoughts more comprehensible. Metaphor may be expressed through nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs.

The noun metaphor may consist of one word or may have an attribute in the form of an “of-phrase”. The verb-metaphor is very emphatic as it throws the metaphorical light on the subject of the sentence too. Metaphors expressed by adjs and adverbs are called metaphorical epithets and will be dealt with in the chapter on the epithet.

Sometimes a metaphor is not confined to one image. The writer finds it necessary to prolong the image by adding a number of other images, but all these additional images are linked with the main, central image. Such metaphors are called sustained or prolonged metaphors.

e.g. But there was no May morning in his cowardly human heart.

Personification is a stylistic device closely related to metaphor.

Personification is the presentation of a phenomenon or an idea as a human being. This device is usually achieved by ascribing actions and qualities characteristic of people to the idea or the thing described.

The weak form of personification is the so-called apostrophe. It usually has the form of an address.

The poetical tradition of writing nouns denoting feelings or abstract phenomena with the capital letter may also be regarded as a form of personification.

e.g. Oh Rome! My country! City of the soul.

A different type of interaction between logical and contextual logical meanings is called metonymy. It is based on definite relations between the object implied and the object named. The interaction between the logical and the contextual meanings of the words is based on close relations objectively existing between the part and the body itself.

In metonymy relations between the object named and the object implied are various and numerous. Here are the most frequent types of relations:

1) The relations that exist between an instrument and the action it performs (or between an organ of the body and its function).

2) The relations that exist between an article of clothing and the person wearing it.

3) The relations that exist between the symbol and the phenomenon it symbolized.

Apart from this group of metonymies some other trite types of metonymies should be mentioned – that is metonymies based on very close, common relations between objects. They are:

a) The relations between the creator and his creation.

b) The relations between the material and the thing made of it.

c) The relations between the singular and the plural. This type of metonymy is called synecdochy.

The stylistic effect of trite metonymies is in most cases weak.

Metonymy as a genuine stylistic device is used to achieve concreteness of description. By giving a specific detail connected with the phenomenon, the author evokes a concrete and life-like image and reveals certain feelings of his own.

By mentioning only one seemingly insignificant feature or detail connected with the phenomenon the author draws the reader’s attention to it and makes him see the character he describes as he himself sees it.

e.g. Then a pause, as the bonnet and dress neared the top of the Square.

Irony is such a case of interaction between logical and contextual logical meanings when the contextual logical meaning of the word becomes the opposite of its logical meaning.

In most cases the sentence suffices to make irony clear. In certain cases, though, a much wider context is needed to understand that the word is used ironically and to perceive its stylistic effect.

Irony may be expressed by any part of speech, most often by a noun, adjective and adverb.

The effect of irony largely depends on the unexpectedness and seeming lack of logic of a word used by the author in an incompatible context. The reader is fully aware of the contrast between what is logically expected and what is said. This contrast, this interaction of the contextual logical and logical meanings of the word often produces a humorous effect.

Irony may be used to achieve an effect of bitter mockery and sarcasm as well, especially when it concerns some social phenomena.

e.g. “Perhaps you had a grand passion”. Soames looked at her intently. “Yes – if you want to know – and much good it did me.”

The intentional mixing of the stylistic aspect of words is called bathos (неожиданное появление банальностей в произведении возвышенного стиля, резкий переход от возвышенного к грубому, от высокого к комическому). Unrelated elements are brought together as if they denoted things equal in rank or belonging to one class, as if they were of the same stylistic aspect, e.g. “Let us have wine and women, mirth and laughter, sermons and soda-water – the day after” (Byron). This produces the effect of deliberate lowering the loftiness of expression to the commonplace or even ridiculous. Sometimes the intentional mixing of the stylistic aspect of words produces humorous effect, e.g. “Will you oblige me by keeping your trap shut, darling?” (Maugham)

The stylistic devices based on interaction of primary dictionary and contextually imposed meanings are:

• metaphor

• metonymy

• irony.

Etymologically the term “metaphor” is transference of some quality from one object to another. A metaphor becomes a stylistic device when two different phenomena brought to mind by the imposition of some or all of the properties of one object to another which by nature is deprived of such properties, e.g. “In the slanting beams that streamed through the open window the dust danced and was golden” (Wilde).

Metaphors which are absolutely unpredictable are called genuine; those which are habitual are trite. There are many trite metaphors in the language so that they are hardly perceived as such, e.g. a ray of hope, floods of tears, a storm of indignation, etc. Genuine metaphors are mostly to be found in poetry and emotive prose. Trite metaphors are generally used in newspaper articles, in oratory and even in scientific language. There is constant interaction between genuine and trite metaphors and in course of time genuine metaphors become trite or trite metaphors may regain their freshness. Metaphors contribute to bright and poetic, picturesque and fresh descriptions.

Metonymy is based on a different type of relation between the dictionary and contextual meanings, a relation based on some kind of association connecting the two concepts revealing a quite unexpected substitution of one word for another, one concept for another on the ground of strong impression produced by a chance feature of the thing, e.g. “there was something so very agreeable in being so intimate with such a waistcoat; in being on such off-hand terms so soon with such a pair of whiskers that Tom was uncommonly pleased with himself” (Dickens).

The types of relations on which metonymy is based on may be:

• a concrete thing is used instead of an abstract notion becoming the symbol of the idea, e.g. The camp (military service), the pulpit (clergy) and the law for rich men’s sons are free (Shelley);

• a container instead of the thing contained, e.g. The hall applauded;

• the material instead of the thing made of it, e.g. The marble spoke;

• the instrument instead of the action or the doer of the action, e.g. As the sword is the worst argument that can be used, so should it be the last (Byron).

Irony is a stylistic device based on the simultaneous realization of dictionary and contextual meanings which stand in opposition to each other, e.g. “It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one’s pocket”. The dictionary meaning of the word ‘delightful’ is ‘pleasant, enjoyable’ while the context suggests the opposite meaning – ‘unpleasant, uncomfortable’.

Irony must not be confused with humour. Humour always causes laughter. Irony expresses the feeling of irritation, displeasure, pity or regret.