Toponymy of Russia. Variety and uniqueness of place names of Russia

Russia's territory is large and diverse. It is home to more than a hundred nationalities, each of which is manifested in varying degrees in the toponymy of the country. The names of Russia traces of long-extinct languages and peoples. All this makes toponymic background of Russia is very complex and diverse.

The proportion of the various peoples in the toponymy is far from unambiguous. Almost everywhere there are Slavic names. Widely represented the Turkic toponymy. In the North and in the Urals occupy a significant place names of Finno-Ugric origin. Areas of the Baltic, Iranian, and Manchu-Tungus toponymy occupied a significant space, which indicates a wide distribution of these peoples in the past on the territory of Russia. The diversity of natural conditions is also reflected in the geographical terminology and toponymy. For each geographical area are typical of its terms which constitute a significant body of geographical names. Captured in toponymy and complicated history of the country. For example, in Central Russia often there are names of settlements that have survived from past historical epochs — feudal, capitalist, and the modern name appeared during the time of socialism. Age toponymy of Russia is different.

Toponymy of the centre of European part of Russia has attracted scientists for a long time, who found that ancient names are hydronyms.

In this territory there are the four basic toponymic layers: 1) the Volga-Oka (its origin is still unclear); 2) Finno-Ugric; 3) Baltic; 4) Slavic (newest layer). As small patches Turkic names can be found.

An example of Slavic (Russian) names can be the names of small rivers: the Mouth, the Fungi, Solonytsia, etc.; names of settlements: Pereslavl-Zalessky, Uglich, Yaroslavl, Zakharove, etc. Examples of names of Finno-Ugric origin can be the names of cities, villages and rivers: Lakhost, Kolomna, Sudoka, Moksha, Ushla, Kineshma, Veltma, Kerva.

Examples of the names of Baltic origin are Upa, Zhizdra; Turkic — Salyany, Baidaki, Bakhtyzino. This region includes the territory of the Mordovians, and the Mordvin language belongs to the Finno-Ugric group of the Uralic language family. Therefore, here are ubiquitous Mordovian names: Suwary, Cerisola, Narlai, Lepley, Kaymar, etc.

On the territory of Mordva are many toponyms with formant -lay, which means "river"; -kushi (-gushi), which means "glade". Part of these place names are easy to decipher: Veryakushi (vere — "upper"); Kinalgushi — (from kinal — "fern"); Miyakoshi (miya — "beaver"); Pichingushi (pichi "pine"); Seryakushi (serya "high"); Chirgushi (chire — "edge"),

In the toponymy of the Kola Peninsula vividly depicts the history and nature of this part of Russia. There are many Russian and Finno-Ugric names. Finnish names: Keivy, Hibiny, Imandra, Tuloma, Shuryarv. Many of the names contain a common noun geographical terms: yarv — "lake", joki - "river", chorr — "mountain". Many Lappish names assimilated into Russian, but retained the basis of the Lappish languages, for example: Cola (Lappish col "fish"); Murmansk (Lappish mur — sea, ma — the "land"); Kandalaksha (Lappish kanda — "flowing", lahti — "the bay"). Some Lappish names are slavicised form a Lappish-Russian combination: Churozero, Umbozero, Lovozero.

Toponymic background of Karelia is formed by Karelian names that are very close to the place names of Finland: Elisenvaara, Pitkyaranta, Lyaskelya, Yuvalaksha. Slavic toponymy of the Pskov region is unique and original, and the local geographical terminology is strikingly similar to Belarus. Obviously, Slavonic toponymy of Belarus, Pskov and Novgorod regions formed in the community and unity of cultural and economical structure before the formation of the Russian and Belarusian languages. There are many of the names of the Finnish and Baltic languages: Neva, Soudoma, Seliger, Inzhora, Mga etc.

In Komi, in the Nenets Autonomous district, Udmurt Republic and surrounding territories there were widely represented physiographic Mari and Russian names with -va, -la, -ma: Volva, Kosva, Mylva, Zylma, Sysola. On the territory of the Komi typical words and terms are: yb (field), shor (Creek), jol (Creek), dor (land) — Vadyb, Niashor, Dypjol, Cur-jador. Mari names also have their own terms: nur (field), anjer (river). Examples of the Mari names can be: Yoshkar-Ola, Ananur, Shurashenger. On the territory of Udmurtia the basis is very clearly expressed by the Finno-Ugric toponymic layer: Kechur, Kimashur, Parsgurt, Coos bow, Sharkan, Smyrky, Keldysh, Dyrpa. In names of the rivers instead of northern particle Yu here comes Ya.

Complex and original one is the toponymy of the Volga region. This area is characterized by the alternation of Slavic, Finno-Ugric and Turkic names. Slavic names prevail in the valley of the Volga river and neighboring areas. The names of the major rivers, as a rule, are pre-Slavic. Hydronyms here are Finno-Ugric. Examples of Turkic settlement names, especially numerous in the territory of Tatarstan, are: Bugulma, Muslyumovo, Kutlu-Bukash, Shihazany, Shemordan, Actapysh, etc. Many Tatar names transformed or reinterpreted in accordance with the norms of the Russian language: Tatar Tunjaz converted in Dubyazy, Vereza — Berezi, Chaldy (hoary) — Chelny, etc. For the Tatar toponymic stratum there formed the characteristic formant -ly (la), indicating the presence of inherent for the subject quality. The Chuvash language, as Tatar, refers to the Turkish language, but has many Finno-Ugric borrowings. Typical for this language are terms: casa (village), yal (village), cul/cule (lake), vurman (forest), syrma (river), pos (head), oi (field) and several others: Shorcasa, Armancasa, Tepsarcul. The toponymy of the Lower Volga region is characterized by the following layers: 1) pre-Slavic names; 2) Iranian; 3) Russian. Many names with the words: balka (Krugovaya Balka, Staraya Balka); yar (Krasnyy Yar, Veseli Yar, Cherny Yar, etc.). Examples of the Kalmyk names: Hargata, Elista, Sarpa, Zargenta, Amta, Yergeni.

The toponymy is very different and difficult for the North Caucasus and Don, the Krasnodar and Stavropol regions. In it traces of various eras and linguistic stratifications and also multinational structure of the population are imprinted. Place names of this part of the territory of Russia are various on age. With possible existence of traces of antique antiquity, the greatest distribution was gained by toponyms of the Caucasian and Iberian languages. There live the Turkic people (Nogais, Balkars, Karachays, etc.), and also Ossetians and Russians. Languages of all these people have found the reflection in toponymy of the North Caucasus. Names can be examples of the Adygo-Circassian languages: the cities — Anapa, Matsesta; ridges and tops — Sugan, Tkhan, Ketsekhur, Samur, Andisky, Gimrinsky, which have received the Russian postfixes; names of the rivers — Samur, Hazanor, Betsor, Teberda, Hasaut, Chegem, Cherek; names of settlements — Batsanda, Samoda, Godoberts, Tsatani, Gerpegezh, Dzhagonas and some other names.

Widely the Ossetian names are submitted here: Tsey, Gimraykhokh, Mashakhdon, Uredon, where the word don in Ossetian means "river". Along with the Ossetian Turkic names are numerous, names of the rivers on - su concern to them: Koysu, Karakoys; names on - ozen, - uzen.

Place names of the Kaliningrad region are of great interest. This territory was part of Russia after war in 1945. Until this time the German names, which considerable part had the Baltic origin, dominated here. After the WWII the majority of the cities and settlements has been given new names: Kaliningrad (the former Konigsberg); Sovetsk (the former Tilsit), Baltiysk (former Pilau), etc. However, the rivers have kept the former names: Pregolya (the former Pregel), Instruich (Inster), Angarapa (which was Angarap), etc. In the majority the hydronymy of the Kaliningrad region has the Baltic roots.

The Urals is the big geographical area. The toponymy of the Urals has many similarities to toponymy of the neighboring regions of the European Russia, Siberia and Kazakhstan. Northwest slopes of the Urals — the region of prevalence of names of the Komi. Names with the term - parma (height) can be examples: Ovin-Parma, Dzhezhim-Parma; with the term -iz (stone, the rock): Telpos-Iz, Porog-Iz, Dal-Iz, Sal-Iz; with the term - nyor (mountain): Tamu-Nyor, Yalping-Nyor, Kent-Nyor, Chakhl-Nyor, etc. Names with the term - va, - ma (river) are characteristic of hydronymy: Blma, Yayva, Kolva, Vilva, Usva, Kozhva, Obva. Among Finno-Ugric place-names, many toponyms are with the word yug (river): Yug, Bolshoi Yug, Yugshur. The fund of names of the Bashkir origin is wide: Isyangulovo, Yumaguzino, Yuldybayevo, Ibragimovo, Ismagilovo, etc.

In the territory of the Orenburg region, Turkic names differ in simplicity and evidence of the semantic value: the rivers — Bulyuk (wolf), Guberlya (froggish), Or (ditch), Kunduzla (beaverish), Danguz (porkish), Chagan (maple), Tashla (stony); villages — Chaganla (maple), Sharla (marsh), Saraygir (red stallion), etc. Among the Russian toponyms many names reflect economic events.

The modern toponymy of Western Siberia is very different. The hydronymy, as names of settlements have arisen by the beginning of the 17th century, is of special interest. Far North occupies area of the Nenets names. One can find many bright reflections of history, people life in the Nenets names. There are many names reflecting production and gender and age properties of deer, their distinctive habits. The element –yaha (the general name of the river at Nenets) is very characteristic hydronym. To the Russian person in such names it is quite often heard “-iha” therefore many Nenets names at Russians sound Korotaiha, Yasivoyayha. Seldomly names of Khanty and Mansi with characteristic elements - bu or - chago are met: Chaga, Kemchaga, Kamarchaga, Anbu, Tuba, etc. There are a lot of terms, which are characteristic for hydronymy.

Between Central Yenisei and Ob, there are many place names from the Selkup language. Characteristic elements for them are - ky, - kyke (river); - to, -tu (lake): Pyakalky (a), Porylto, Kytalky, etc. Names of settlements have other character. Before the arrival of Russians there were no cities here. New settlements were given the Russian names, and only the few settlements have received non-russian names from non-russian names of the rivers: Omsk, Tomsk, Ishim, Tara, Tobolsk — all these are old (under the terms of Siberia) settlements. In names generally Russian background has sat down.

Eastern Siberia is the biggest region of Russia by the sizes. The toponymy of this region is defined by features of settling, environment and national structure of the population. There are a lot of hydronims, but it is a little settlements. Settling of Eastern Siberia by Russians went east from the West, mainly in the area of old Irkutsk path and the Siberian railroad. Almost everywhere in Eastern Siberia the Evenk names meet. Their area much more exceeds the sizes of territories where now Evenks live. The Evenk toponyms are known and in pure form and as the names assimilated by the Russian, Yakut and Buryat languages. Suffixes are typical for the Evenk toponyms: -nga, -ngna, -mba, -mzha (Khatanga, Byrranga, Dolingna, Selemzha, Nemba, Selenga).

The Yakut toponyms are the oldest in the basin of the Lena River. The Chukchi-Koryak names, as well as Evenk, are widespread within Yakutia too. The Russian names of Eastern Siberia differ from the Russian names of the European part of Russia a little. Local terms have exerted impact on them.

For northern and central parts of Krasnoyarsk Krai the Evenk and Ket toponymic layers are widespread.

In oikonymy along Yenisei the Russian names are characteristic: Osinovo, Vorogovo, Podtesovo, Kostino, Volochanka, Boyarka, Zhdanikha.

For the southern part of Krasnoyarsk Krai and Tuva among oronyms and hydronyms the Evenk, Tuva, Tatar, Mongolian names prevail. Names of settlements of the South of Krasnoyarsk Krai are more various in comparison with names of settlements of the north and the center of Krai. The Russian names belong for the valley of Yenisei: Ermolaevo, Bogina, Bragino, Sorokino, Znamenka, Zimnee, Studenoe, etc. Far from Yenisei and its inflows settlements with the Russian names are very few.

In the huge territory of Yakutia almost all hydronyms are of the Yakut origin. Name Yakut itself is from the Evenk origin. Yakuts call themselves Sakha — "person" (urangkhaysakha). There are a lot of names of Evenk and sometimes of the Yukaghir origin. Hydronyms belonging to the Yukaghir: Alazeya, Anyuy, Muna, Kobycha. The way of life of Yukaghirs did not demand any fixing of own names to certain rivers and lakes.

The typical geographical terms which are a part of the Yakut names are: yurah (river), kuyol (lake), uu (water), tomtor (hill), chara (black), aly (valley), daban (pass), kumah (sand), kyzyl or kysyl (red), sajylyk (ingate), etc.

The Russian names meet slightly less often, they belong to the largest settlements: Mirnyi, Verkhoyansk, Pokrovka. In oronimy of Yakutia there are many names given in honor of names of researchers: Pronchishchev, Cherskiy, Chekanovsky, Sarychev, etc.

The territory of the Irkutsk region in most part represents peculiar corridor between areas of the Yakut toponymy in the north and Mongolian (Buryat) in the south. The Irkutsk region on toponymic range reminds the South of Krasnoyarsk Krai.

Here the Mongolian, Evenk hydronyms dominate widely, too. Among names of settlements there are most of all names of the Russian origin.

In the territory of Buryatia the Buryat toponymic layer dominates. It prevails in oronimy, hydronymy and in names of settlements. Many Russian names are rethought Buryat ones. In the Buryat toponymy unlike the Evenk very many additional word terms: murin (river), gorkhon (stream), nur (lake), khadi (water), ula (mountain). With these terms names are formed: Khara-Murin (black river); Bayartay-Gorkhon (cheerful stream); Dodo-Nour (lower lake), Bogdo-Ula (sacred mountain), Ula-Murin (mountain river). The Russian place names quite often serve as peculiar monuments to the first settlers in Buryatia. They are almost not represented in hydronymy.

The Chita and Amur regions, as well as Irkutsk, represent peculiar corridor of the Russian toponymy. Hydronymy is generally Mongolian, Evenk, Tungus-Manchurian. And names of the rivers have named the cities subsequently: Chita, Shilka, Sokhondo, Ingoda, Hapcheranga. The majority of names of the rivers and lakes is Evenk. Names of the rivers in the basin of Zeya are: Arga (nomadic), Amkuda (the green flat area with abundance of berries), Kapuri (from kapulya that means "the dense wood"), etc. The Evenk hydronyms Lucha (that means "Russian"), Yakodokit (the river conducting to Yakuts) are connected with names of the people.

For the Far East there is no toponymic unity, too. Owing to big differences of environment and national structure the toponymy of the Far East is divided into a number of regions, namely: toponymy of Primorye, Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands, Kamchatka, the Okhotsk Coast and Chukotka.

To Primorye the main background is presented by the Tungus names (Bikin, Chorus, Arma, Iman, etc.) which are the most ancient here. In hydronymy the Russian names are single, but enough Russian names of settlements: Vyazma, Vladivostok, etc.

From ancient toponymy of Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands there were only single names. Names of local character have remained only in oronima and hydronyma. It is a lot of hydronym of the Tungus origin: Tym, Lakh; Nivkh ones — Evay, Viakhta. The Nivkh language holds the isolated position here. The Nivkh names accurately differ from Evenk and Tungus. There are many names of the Ainu origin, especially often they meet in the south of Sakhalin: Aniva, Cucunai, Tomari, Uvenshiri, Tuokotang, Poronay. In the years of the Japanese occupation of the Southern Sakhalin (1905 — 1945 the Russian names were transformed by the Japanese pronunciation: Muravyevskoye — Murauofuesiki; the cape Velikan — Uerikan; the cape Sinyavinv — Sknyauin; the cape Morzh — Morudzi, etc. Some Russian names have been translated into Japanese. So the village of Listvenichnoye has received name Karamatsu (in Japanese the Larch), the village the Third Span — Sannosova (in Japanese — "the third valley"). After the return of the Southern Sakhalin to Russia to these settlements either were given absolutely new or old names came back. New names of the Southern Sakhalin reflect features of the nature, economy and history of this edge: Pobedino, Uglegorsk (jap. Esutorou), Shakhtyorsk (jap. Katak).

The toponymy of the Kuril Islands is less original, than the toponymy of Sakhalin. There are many names of the Ainu origin, such as names of islands Shikotan, Urup, Iturup, Onekotan, Paramushir, Simushir, Kunashir. Word mushir (Ainu.) means "sand" or "sandy shallow". All these names are deciphered: Paramushir (wide island); Onekotan (old settlement); Iturup (jellyfish); Urup (salmon); Kunashir (black island); Shikotan (best settlement).

The Russian names are very numerous here: Voyeykova passage, Ayauchina island, Ayvazovsky-town, Ivan the Terrible's mountain, Shelikhov bay, Pallas volcano. As we see, the memorial toponymy is well presented here.

Names of Kamchatka are studied very well. There are a lot of names of the local people, also the toponymy of Russian-speaking origin is well presented. From local names were widely adopted Itelmen, but many of them are rethought by Russians. So by Suaachu it is rethought to Avacha, the river Shakhpad — to Zhupanovaya, Uutu — to Utka, Shepen — to Shchapino, Tuluach — to Tolbachik, Orat — to Ratuga, and then to Raduga. The river Alyutvayam has turned into Olyutorovka, Piliawang — into Palana, Anapkon — into Anapka. The Russian toponymy is various. These are the rivers Lesnaya, Pustaya, Zhilovaya, Tikhaya, Bystraya. Numerous capes have been given names on features of their situation in quality of reference points: Low, High, Inclined, Steep, Humpbacked, Rotary, Shallow, etc. Among hydronyms there are many Koryak names: Pylgovayey ("the hungry river", that is in it is not present fish); Akhavey ("the bad river" — is not present reindeer lichen); Avyavey (the river — skull); Kurguchan ("the heavy river" — with rapid current); Kuvivayem (ice river). Many settlements have received the names according to names of the rivers (Avacha, Anavgay, Apuka, Achayvayan).

Basis of hydronymy of the Okhotsk Coast is made by Evenk, sometimes the Koryak, Chukchi or Yakut names.

The toponymy of the Russian Arctic developed in the course of the research of this part of the country. New names were given in honor of outstanding scientists-pioneers here: Nansen, Wrangel, Schmidt islands; capes Chelyuskin, Litke, Rotmanov; Laptev Sea. Some names remind of circumstances under which these or those geographical objects have been open: island of the Privacy, Doubt bay, gulf of Wellbeing, cape of Desire. These are so-called symbolical names.

Reference: In the world of place names of continents of the Northern hemisphere: Grant for Teachers / Rylyuk G. Ya., Basik S. N., Schafran V. V. – Mn.: Plank beds. Asveta, 200. – 191 pages.