Toponymy of South America

Common feature of toponymy of South America is the domination of the Spanish and Portuguese names. Only the small percent of names of geographical objects belongs to local terms and concepts. By the time of arrival to South America of Europeans the local toponymy was created only in the Central Andes: Machu Picchu, Cuzco, Chinchan, Quito, etc. The name of the city of Cuzco is the transformed Indian word of Kosko that in language of the people of Quechua, according to one of versions, means "the center of four clans". When Cuzco was the capital of the powerful state of Inca, it was divided into four parts. To each of them the certain road conducted with northern, southern, east and western directions.

It happened so that the mountain system of the Andes has been mastered by the person in ancient times. The advanced Inca civilization is remarkable example of adaptation of people to mountain environment. Many people of South America in ancient times could develop coastal territories along the Pacific Ocean. However, they have preferred mountain plateaus and numerous valleys at the heights from 2000 to 4000 m.

The most powerful people of the Andes have organized the union of Inca, have adapted to such difficulties as cold, the steepness of slopes, pressure difference, low content of oxygen. On slopes of mountains and valleys they suited effective system of terraces where with success grew up potatoes and some other cultures. Existence of artificially arranged systems of terraces promoted emergence of such name as the Andes mountains (according to one of versions, Andes - "terraces" or "steps").

On east plateaus Inca began to breed lamas, have built settlements, having given them very bright and sonorous names reflecting natural mountain landscapes and work. These settlements have been connected by well equipped roads which have received the names too. In this regard it is necessary to notice that history of human civilization has given two become famous systems of roads - Roman in Europe and Incan in the Andes.

The outstanding German scientist Alexander Humboldt, having got acquainted with the way paved at the time of Inca has told: "It is the most useful work which was ever made by the person". This road Indians called Kapaknan that "the road of lords" or "the royal road" means. An ancient name of this road, which connected Cuzco and Quito for two thousand kilometers, has been renamed by the Spanish in "Camina reale" - "Kings Road", where the word of "camina" in Spanish means a road. The road has been paved by torny stone, and through abysses (gorges) bridges have been thrown. Messengers ran, soldiers walked, Inca masters moved in stretchers on this road. Kapaknan was a miracle of civilization of that time. The main road of Inca passing across the Andes was on average 5 m wide, and the way paved in parallel but to the coast of the Pacific Ocean, reached width of 8 m and passed through desert lands. Extent of all roads made 5000 km. Both of these roads connected side. Each piece had the name and has been written down in the documents belonging to the main leader of Inca together with names of large settlements which, there were thousands along all roads. Settlements, the rivers, roads, deserts, mountain passes and tops, numerous valleys have been called by words of the Indian tribes living in the Andes (Aconcagua, Apurimac, Quito, Cuzco etc.).

For Inca the road was the main meaning of life, peculiar symbol. Roads on Earth did not arise. They were laid by legs of the person, have constructed his hands. "Each person has the road" - Inca who already then understood this truth liked to speak.

The local people of South America had full unification between the person, the environment and everyday life. It accurately was reflected in toponymy of the continent of pre-Columbian times.

After arrival here in the 16th century of Spaniards and Portuguese many words, names, local terms from Indian languages were included into the Spanish and Portuguese lexicon, and already from there have removed to languages of other people of the world. For example: savanna, cannibal, maize, guano, cocoa, tobacco, Chile, mat, hammock, etc.

Names have come to South America from Spain: Barcelona (the gulf and the city in Venezuela), Valencia (the lake and the city in Venezuela), Cordoba (the city and the province in Argentina, department in Colombia), Cartagena (the city in Colombia). The name Sierra-Nevada in Spain (snow ridge) became usual for high mountains both in Southern, and in North America.

About a half of place names of South America of the European origin, namely Portuguese and Spanish. In the north of the continent toponyms of the French, Dutch, English languages meet. In toponymy of Argentina and Uruguay prevail Spanish and the small specific weight of names of indigenous people.

The toponymy of Brazil is generally presented by the Portuguese words: Rio de Janeiro. Riu-Negru, Black Serra, etc. In Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay and Paraguay names meet the couple element that "river" means. For example: Parana, Paraguay, Paranaiba, Couple, etc. Among names of local origin which true sense is considered established it is necessary to call Paraguay, Ucayali, Guayare. The big group of names has come from languages of Indians of Quechua, Aimar, be in a stupor - the guarani, Mapuche. The majority of radical place names of the continent are very simple on sense and reflect in themselves natural landscapes: "river", "mountain", "water", etc. From the Andes of Ecuador to the Andes of the Average of Chile the old Peruvian names with characteristic elements dominate: Tampa (strengthening, lock), "bamb" (field), "gasta" (settlement), "marets" (village) and some other. Names of local origin have remained up to now: Bogota, Lima, Cuzco, Arica, Quito, etc.

In mountainous areas of Bolivia, Peru, Northern Chile basis the Aymar-Quechuan names, especially make names of the rivers and lakes: Titikaka, Poopo and others. On average Chile the specific weight of radical names is slightly less. The basis them is made by terms of language of Mapuche: can be examples the island of Chiloe, Aconcagua, Atakam, etc. From local, indigenous languages there were names confirming plurality of the phenomenon: to "kalekala" that many plants of Calais, "matemata" mean that many thickets "mat" (tea) mean. Similar names are inherent also for the islands of Oceania. It Heyerdal for the proof that many islands of Polynesia became populated by the people of South America or on the contrary used the Tour. The considerable group of native natural terms was included into the Portuguese-Spanish toponymy of Brazil.

Due to rough and drama history of formation of the political map of South America in its territory the group of names of symbolical character which have appeared on maps as a result of certain circumstances meets and reflect (symbolize) historical events, rituals, desires, certain circumstances which promoted their emergence. Appearance of numerous group of names of El Dorado symbolized dream of the rich earth. Also there were names of ridges in the Andes, the cities of La Paz.

At the time of aggressive campaigns against Inca the Spanish conquistadors had fighting symbolical call: "We will destroy by sword and fire pagan temples, and on their place we will construct sanctuaries to our gods". After that in all ancient cities of Latin America central squares carry the name "Plasa-de-Armas" that "The area of weapon" means. The word Inca (inka) is not the name of the people or the tribe. In languages of the Quechua it is the word "lord" means, "master" also treats symbolical terms.

Characteristic of toponymy of South America is existence of names which bear in themselves mythological and religious and cult sense. And it has begun during era of Great geographical discoveries when hundreds of the ships went to coast of America. The Catholic church supported this mission. Gold which went to Spain, Portugal because of the ocean flew also in church arks. Each new plot of land which was opened by Spaniards and Portuguese, each new built city had to be called only in honor of Saints, in honor of the most Christian of god. And since 16-17th centuries the map of America began to be replenished with such names. Have so appeared: Santiago-de-Chile (capital of Chile); Sant'-Iago - the river, inflow of Amazon; river San Francisca (Brazil); San Jorge's cities, San Valentino and many others.

Quite often concepts of spatial character are reflected in names of the states and cities of the continent: Ecuador (the country on the equator), the city of Quito which sense of the name, according to one of versions, in translation from Indian means "two half". Indians have noticed that the sun over their earth twice in year moves on the one hand sky to another, as was reflected in the name of the capital of Ecuador of the city of Quito. According to one of versions the name of Cuzco means "navel", "center" of Earth.

Number of names of the countries of the continent are obliged by the origin to era of geographical discoveries. Names of the states, data the Netherlands, Spanish, Portuguese seafarers, sound still. In honor of Christopher Columbus the country of Colombia is called.

Some Latin American countries have received absolutely casual or insufficiently proved for the whole country names. So, the name Brazil comes from the Portuguese word brasil - fernambuk, or red sandal-wood tree. The matter is that from this tree in Brazil extracted bright red paint which name comes, in turn, from the word brasa that means heat, fire, the heated coals, to be exact "brazier".

Even more casual is the name Venezuela. In 1499 participants of the Spanish expedition have seen the Indian village built on piles on the bank of the Gulf of Maracaibo. It has reminded them the Italian Venice, and the village was called by Venesuella, i.e. small Venice. The name then has extended to all territory and since 1830 became name of the independent state.

There are, of course, in America also countries which names have come from local Indian languages. Such is, most likely, origin of the name Peru.

Possibly, was its source gidrony Bira - the river in that place where in the 16th century the Spanish conquistadors have landed so was called. Inca whom they have met called themselves biruanets. Spaniards have assigned this word to the name of all country later.

Many scientists believe that the name of the state of Chile has come from the Indian word chili - cold because the valley of the river of Sant'-Iago to which this name actually belongs is bordered with mountains with snow tops from where often cold winds blow. But there is group of the Chilean scientists who more agree with folk etymology of the name Chile which connects it with shout of the bird making sounds of Chile-Chile-Chile in the desert.

The name Argentina comes from Latin argentum - silver. The matter is that in 1526 the Spanish traveler Sebastian Kabot, having seen set of silver jewelry at local tribes, has decided that the country is rich with silver. Actually silver was imported into Argentina from other areas of the continent.

As we see, the main toponymic layer has begun to develop during era of Great geographical discoveries. The Spanish pioneers equipped expeditions to borders of South America in search of rich lands, in search of gold, silver and jewelry. It was reflected in names of some geographical objects of the continent: Argentina, La Plata. It is in this situation pertinent to give interesting historical example.

Hardly the first delights concerning round-the-world F. Magellan's travel as in Spain began to think of equipment of new expedition have managed to cease.

When vessels were ready to swimming, have begun to select the chief of expedition. The choice has been stopped on the skilled seafarer who has already become famous for the opening, Sebastian Kabota. The ships Kabota floated across the Atlantic Ocean along the coast of lands of the New World. Suddenly before expedition, the entrance to the enormous gulf, which has appeared the mouth of big hand, has opened. Honor of opening of this enormous mouth belongs to Spaniard Díaz Solisa who has visited here in 1515 and to the dead at skirmish with natives. Later here also F. Magellan in search of the passage came into the Southern sea. This gulf has been called "the river Solisa". Therefore, it appeared on cards, which were owned by S. Kabot. Kabot has decided to pass across this gulf river as it is possible further in depth of the continent. On the way, he has met natives on whom there was jewelry of silver. It exchanged this jewelry for the knickknacks brought from Spain. Then has come back home back.

The silver jewelry brought by S. Kabot to Spain from coast of the big river has made strong impression, and behind the river explored by it the new name Rio de La Plata has become stronger that in translation from Spanish is meant by the Silver river. Subsequently it has turned out that this expanded mouth of the river.

The state formed in the basin of La Plata has received the name Argentina (in Spanish "silvery", "silver"). However, the most curious in S. Kabot's expedition, the fact that these lands were not rich with silver. As for silver jewelry, which Kabot has allegedly exchanged at Indians, as it has appeared later; it has captured them at Portuguese during the campaign to South America. However, it became known to the world long ago, however the name of the mouth of the river and the whole state has remained in its original form up to now. As for the river which has been studied later and bears the waters on the beautiful area overgrown with dense mangrove vegetation, for big width it was called Parana that in language of Indians is meant by "the sister of the sea" or just "high water".

History of emergence of the name Frouord is interesting. Floating by the ship "Gold Fallow Deer" by the severe, negostepritshny, gloomy, deserted rock which is the southernmost tip of the continent, the English pirate F. Drake called it Froward that means "gloomy", "inhospitable".

History of emergence of the name of the archipelago the Falkland Islands located in waters of the Atlantic Ocean near Argentina is difficult and peculiar. The archipelago bears the English name, but it not name of the person who has opened it. For the first time these islands have been opened by Englishman Davies. Later vessels of the English pirate Hau Kyings who called them Maiden Islands that means "Islands of the Maiden" - in honor of the queen Elizabeth have approached islands. Hundred years later the seafarer Strong has named these islands the friend Faulk and called Falklands. This name has remained behind them to this day though on the French and Spanish cards they long appeared as Maluinsky islands. Maluinami named the French seafarers from Saint-Malo who were often visiting islands. Argentineans, declaring claims for the archipelago as the possession belonging to them, in peak left to British behind islands Maluinskiye's name which was transformed and by our time has reached as Malvinskiye. On our cards both names have remained: Falkland (Malvinskiye).

Belarusians can be proud too of how they keep memory of our fellow countryman Ignatiy Domeyko who as the fates decree in the middle of the 19th century has got to South America in the far-away South American country of Chile. Are called by his name the settlement near port Antofagasta, the city in the south of the country, mountain krebt in the Andes (Kordilyera Domeyko) of 1000 km, Domeyko's hollow in waters of the Pacific Ocean. In the Andes, on border of Argentina and Chile, there are three mountain tops of Tres Sabios (Tres Sabios) - "Three scientists": Filipp, Guy and Domeyko.

Modern names of the new African states are, as a rule, transferred in many languages equally. In South America there is the whole category of names of the states which drop out of the general system of the existing rules and are exceptions.