The toponymy of North America. Features of an origin of Geographical Names of North America

The toponymy of North America is not so complicated as African or Eurasian ones. The biggest part of geographical names of the continent have a recent origin and because of this are easy to decrypt using the vocabulary of European languages – English, French, Spanish, German and some of Slavic languages. The toponymy of the North American continent is well researched. The colonization of the continent occurred by settlers from different countries. That’s why there was formed special toponymic seam on this territory. The toponymy of the continent is characterized by borrowing of well-known in the Old World names; predominance of names from languages of the leading moving nation; presence of compact moving groups; rather easy interpretation of names Mississippi, Missouri, Niagara, Potomac, Ohio, Guron, Michigan, Dakota, Nebraska, Appalachians. These are Indian names of the rivers, lakes, plains, mountain chains — an eternal monument of language of people, who already almost disappeared. That was the land of people, who by mistake were named Indians by Ch. Columbus.

The indigenous toponymy is no more than 10% of Indian languages and even this small part is very distorted, transformed and assimilated by English, Spanish and other European languages. Thus, in the eastern part of the USA, where during ф long period of time settlers were living with indigenous people, from local toponyms remained rather pitiful amount, saved names are distorted to a degree where they cannot be recognized. From 67 Counties of State of Pennsylvania only 10 have Indian names; in the State of Kentucky from 30,000 names only 90 have an Indian origin and only 9 toponyms have saved undistorted forms. There are lots of common features in indigenous Toponymy of North America. The basis of local toponymy is represented by: 1) names of plants, vegetable formations, animal and hunting grounds; 2) names ethnonyms (tribal groups); 3) names, reflecting interesting historical events in life of Indians. The biggest part of Indian names are pretty easy: Big water, Bad or Good river. Such names as Mississippi, Ohio, in the languages of different Indian groups have the same meaning.

Geographical terminology of Indians is widespread in all America – colourful, as feathers on their ceremonial grab. How many poetries in such names as Saskuikhanna, Monogakhila, Passamakuodi, Chatakhuchi, Suvonni. From names of 50 states 23 carry such colourful Indian names. While investigating Indian toponymy, we steadily feel breath of mountains and the woods, fields and rivers in it. In the name of the river Saskuikhanna, for example, the first half of the word designates an arable land, and the second – the river. The State of Minnesota is "clear water" in the language of tribe Si, and in Maine the name of the Passamakuodi bay means "rich in fish". The name of the state of Kentucky apparently comes from "kentaka", which in the language of Iroquois tribe means "the clime of meadows".

Some toponyms reflect historical past of Indians, their life, occupations. The name of the State of Alabama means " thicket-clearers".

Scientists still argue about an origin of many geographical names. According to one version Arizona – the distorted English term arid zone, i.e. "desert". Other etymologies claim that this name comes from the word of an arizum, that in the language of Aztecs means "silver-bearing". However, according to the known American scientist J. R. Stewart, the name of the state is composed from words ali hand monack, meaning "the clime of small springs". Later they were transformed to Arizona. The etymology of the name of Texas is also not clear. Some assume that the name comes from an Indian teyshas – "friendship". The Spanish settlers considered that teyshas – the Indian tribe, so they have appropriated this name for the huge territory in which, in their opinion, this tribe lived.

In Indian toponymy it is possible to observe well expressed areas of separate formant (morpheme). For example, southwest territories of the USA differ in wide circulation of formant - ge, - ev, - paj, and the southwest of Canada abounds with formant - teen, - deen, - tee etc.

The indigenous toponymy of Mexico and the countries of Central America has saved its origin quite well. The examples of the remained oronim: Popocatepetl, Istaksikhuatl, Naunakatepetl, Koatepetl (tepete in Aztec – "mountain"); gidronim – Usumasinta, Petatlan, Papaloapan, Akatlan, Polotitlan etc. Local names in Central America are a little bit different: Momostepego, Tegucigalpa, Matagalpa, Chichigalpa, Nicaragua, Managua, Chigua, etc. Formants -tlan, -teatlan are most common. Indigenous toponyms in Mexico and Central America are concentrated on the South of the Mexican Plateau and in the countries of Central America. This is Akatila (sedgy), Tekolotitlan (eagle-owl’s), Ozdotitlan (cave), Koakalko (snake), Metla (agave), Chilla (pepper), Etla (bean). The majority of these names reflect the plant and animal life of this clime. Many toponyms reflect a labor activity: Kiunk (market), Mitlantsipko (place where do arrows), Chimalpan (armorers), Mitlan (archer), Mihuakan (fishing), etc.

Historical influence on indigenous toponymy of Mexico is big. It is shown in change of the terminations, accents, reconsideration. As example can be Vigastepa (Sp. Vegas – "rafters", Indus. – Tepic), Romantla (Roman – the European name, tla- an Indian suffix).

The Spanish names often have an element -San (sacred) or other word glorifying sacred belief and Catholic church in them. These are such oronima as San Pedro, San Juan, Santa Barbara, San Joaquin, Santiago.

Like British, Spaniards have brought many names from their homeland to the New World. As well as in Spain, in North America there are also such names of settlements as Cordoba, Salamanca, Guadalajara, Zaragoza etc. Also the new type of names forms the term suedad (city): Suedad-Victoria, Suedad-Ronsales, Suedad Madero, Suedad-García. Names with the term villa (village) are numerous: Villa-Hidalgo, Villa-de-Alvares, Villa-de-Bravo and others. Usual terms are part of the Spanish names: agua (water), alto (high), azul (blue), bahia (bay), bajo (low), blanco (white), valle (valley), verde (green), viejo (old), golfo (gulf), cabo (cape), сosta (coast), largo (long), levante (east), loma (hill), lyano (plain), monte (mountain), moreno (dark), negro (black), norte (northern), nuevo (new), occidente (West), pico (top), plana (plain), punto (cape), pueblo (settlement), puente (bridge), montaña (mountain), sierra (ridge), a tierra (land), a fuente (spring) and some other. There are a lot of ancient names in the toponymy of Mexico and Central America The Spanish toponyms are not older than the 16th century.

The indigenous toponymy of islands of the Caribbean Sea was almost lost , except a small number of the distorted names of islands and settlements (Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, Havana and some other). The European toponymy of these archipelagoes is various, as well as languages of the people which have occupied archipelagoes. The Spanish names prevail: Trinidad, Puerto Rico, Granada, Santa Cruz.

In the toponymy of the island of Haiti and on the territory of the small Anthill Islands exists an element of French toponymy: Etrua, Maun-Pelé, Le-Moul, Mac-Will and others. More modern is the English toponymy provided on the island of Jamaica (New York, Cambridge, Green Island and others).

The toponymy of the island of Greenland strongly differs from toponymy of all other territories carried to North America. Such phenomenon is explained by features of the nature, history of settling of this biggest island of the planet. Greenland has been discovered before North America, but became populated very slowly, generally by immigrants from the Scandinavian countries. There were three groups of names on the island: a) the Eskimo; b) the Scandinavian; c) memorial. The Eskimo language takes the isolated place in classification of languages of the world. The Eskimo names belong to forms of the topography, gulfs, bays. There are islands: Nutarmiut, Nunarsuit; gulfs: Ingsulik, Umonak; settlements: Tasiusak, Tugsak, Intividek etc., which are called in Eskimo. Quite often same name can have an island, a bay (fjord), and a settlement. The Eskimo toponymy has her own affixes. So, the affix –suak emphasizes the huge sizes of an object (Nugsuak, Inersuak), an affix - nguak has diminutive value.

Danish and in general the Scandinavian names belong to fjords. As well as in Scandinavia, terms fjord, sund, havn often are a part of local names (harbor). For example, Breda-fjord, Disko-fjord, Godhavn, Jakobshavn. There are a lot of names of memorial perspective. All of them are given by name researchers and travelers (Peary Land, the cape Payer, the Nordensheld's cape, the Land of Nansena, Sharko's Land and some other). For some, names of the English and German origin meet in Greenland.

Some relation between the toponymy of Alaska and Greenland is explained by northern position of these two countries and presence of the Eskimo population. But Alaska differs from Greenland in history of settling and research. Not Scandinavian, but the English names have the main role here. There are a lot of Russian names on Alaska that are already transformed. All this makes the toponymy of Alaska more difficult in comparison with one of Greenland. The toponymy of Alaska has five main groups of names: the Aleutian-Eskimo; Indian (Athabaskans), Russian, English and memorial. The Aleutian-Eskimo names are distributed in coastal areas of Alaska. Names of numerous islands (Atta, Agata, Unimak, Nunavak, Afognak), gulf and straits (Igiak, Numagak) relate to them. The structure of the Eskimo and Aleutian toponyms often includes such words as naigak (mountain), umanak, or unimak (island, land), nunivak (tundra), vick, evik (bay, gulf), antyk (cape), alik (river, stream). Indian and Athabaskan names located in the central and east parts of Alaska. Example: oronym Chichmit, gidronim Yukon, Titna, Alatna. The Russian toponyms in the territory of Alaska have appeared in the years of the Russian command over the peninsula. These are islands Golyj, Dolgiy, Ptich'iy, Morzhovy and some others.

Most fully now the English toponymy (Dreyt-Krik, College, Brown, Dayomond, Thompson) is presented on Alaska.

As well as in other countries of Far North, there are a lot of names given in honor of pioneers and researchers in Alaska– Cook's Gulf, the Beaufort Sea, Montague's island, the mountains Endikott and others.

The nature and modern features of economy and culture find reflection in the toponymy of Canada. There are a lot of Indian, English, French names. More weak Indian names have remained in densely populated parts of Canada. Some of them originate from ethnonyms – names of the separate people and ethnic groups. They are: lake Huron (Indians Gurons), city and river Ottawa (Indians Ottawa), lake Erie (Indians Erie), river and lake Athabasca (Indians Atabaska) etc. The English toponymy of Canada is very simple and easily stands for using modern English. Milling cutter, Churchill, Litl Smokey River, Red River, Big River are examples of English toponyms. French names are generally concentrated in the valley of the river Saint Lavrenti and Lake Ontario (Seong-Maurice, the Vermilion, Richelieu, Montreal), but even here they make no more than 75% of total number of names. Near the Canadian prairies it is often possible to observe names of Slavic origin (Novoseltsa, Arina, Konistino, Tambovka, Goreloe, Kamenka, Troitskoe), but much rarely can one meet names of German origin in these parts.

A big group is made of memorial names. Among them Baffin Island, Hudson Bay, the rivers Mackenzie, mountains Victoria, Robson, Garibaldi and some others can be mentioned.

The toponymy of the USA is rich and various. There is much in common between names of geographical objects in Canada and the USA, which can be explained by similarity of historical development of these two countries. If in Canada the French toponymy is widely presented, then in the USA it gives way English, and to the South and the southwest – Spanish.

In toponymy of the USA the next historical layers quite clearly stand out:

The indigenous toponymy of a pre-European origin has remained almost everywhere. The biggest part of names of the USA belongs to this toponymic layer (Michigan, Dakota, Wisconsin, Illinois, Kansas, Texas, Nebraska, etc.).

The "Toponymy of pioneers" which has developed during an era of opening and settling of the USA. The English and French names prevail in the east, and in the West are Spanish. Many of them are toponyms-migrants from the Old World: Hudson, Boston, New York, Louisiana and some other.

Toponymy of times of massive resettlement to America of the different people.

The modern names which have arisen presently.

Russian toponyms.

The indigenous toponymy is presented in all parts of the country. Most of all indigenous names are possible to meet in areas, occupied and long ago conquered where Europeans lived in close contact with indigenous people and have apprehended their names. In the fields of recent development and settling, when the local population has been exterminated or sent to reservations, native toponymy has remained very poorly: better of all it has remained in downstream of the rivers, lakes; in names of settlements has almost disappeared. The remained names of the rivers and lakes are some kind of monument to the multimillion population. Proportion of indigenous toponymy in the USA is quite high (Michigan, Erie, Ontario, Nebraska, Minnesota, the Appalachians, Dakota, etc.). These Indian names sound so perfect.

The foundations of toponymy of the USA are made by English names, that dominate in all regions of the country. All of them are modern and it's easy to explain them with the help of English: Yellowstone, Rhode Island, Long Beach, Cambridge, Boston etc. The American scientist M. Barrill has established that in names of the rivers of the USA about 200 geographical terms are used. Names of the Spanish origin are located on the South and the SouthWest parts of the country. Gidronims – Colorado, Sacramento, San Juan, Rio-Grande-del-Norte, names of settlements – San-Diye-go, San Luis, Santa Barbara, Oviedo can be examples of the Spanish names. The ideology of conquerors has found reflection in the Spanish toponymy. Spaniards thought of themselves as carriers of sacred Catholic belief, which was spread by fire and a sword in the New World. This feature was imprinted in names: Sacramento (sacrament, blessing), Santa Maria (Saint Maria), Santa-Jorge (Saint Georgy). German and Czech names are very rare. The compact centers in northern states form Finnish names. They are concentrated to the West from the Lake Superior in the State of Minnesota, and also to the West from Mississippi (Vaaza, Suomi). Settlers brought to America not only the language, but also their native names. There is London, Paris, Madrid, Rome, Dublin, Toledo, Moscow, Odessa, St. Petersburg etc. on the territory of the USA. The history of settling of the country was reflected well in toponymy of the USA. Quite often such names as Independes (independent), Payoners (pioneer) can be observed. Usually, such names were given by the first settlers mastering boundless fields of the American prairies.

We know a lot about colonization of Florida and the southwest of North America. Stories of French pathfinders in the east of Canada and in the valley of the river Mississippi, the English settlers on the Atlantic coast of North America, the Portuguese and Spanish travelers within South America are also widely known. But the extent of the Russian settlements in the New World still surprises many Americans. Russians began fur trade on Alaska in the first half of the 18th century. Even then they began to develop the Pacific coast and have almost reached places, where now San Francisco is located. This amazing time of stay of Russians in America can be proved by hundreds of place names which are found now in North and South America. And, looking at a detailed map of America, it is possible to read distinctly according to it big and small events from the Russian-American history.

In the north Russia is separated from America by the strait and the sea, which were called in honor of Vitus Bering. He headed the first expedition of Kamchatka in 1728, has discovered Saint Lawrence Island and Saint Diomid. During the second Kamchatka expedition in 1741 V. Bering and A. Chirikov reached the coast of North America. On the way back they discovered some of islands of the Aleutian group. One island was named "Shumaginsky" in memory of the sailor Shumagin who has died here of a scurvy, by V. Bering. There was a first place name in strange lands which has immortalized memory of the simple person. Alexey Chirikov's ships approached coast of northwest America in day of a religious holiday of Saint Ilya. And the ridge within Alaska has been called by this name, and the island near the coast of Canada — Alexander's Archipelago.

In 1784 a Russian merchant G. I. Shelikhov, whom his contemporaries fairly called a Russian Columbus, lands on the island of Kodiak. On the map of North America the name of Shelikhov can be found in several places. In honor of him the passage separating the island of Kodiak from Alaska, the island in the southern part of Alaska are called. By the way, he received this name according to the decision of security service of the woods of the USA in 1928. At the beginning of the 19th century under the leadership of the main governor of the Russian-American company A. A. Baranov reached the Spanish ownerships in California and organized there a fort Ross (Russia), the settlement of Kuskovo and several settlements — Kostramitinova, Khlebnikov and Chernykh (nowadays all area is called the Russian gorge). Tens of names still have remained in memory of stay in California of the Russian: the Slavyanka River (nowadays the river Russian), St Helena's mountain (in honor of the wife of the commandant of a fort Ross Elena Rotcheva). In the thirties the last century, during Baranov's government, to Alaska has arrived the Russian ethnographer Ivan Veniaminov. He lived there for more than 10 years, learned local language, became a missionary, created the alphabet, constructed schools and church. In the history of the Russian America I. Veniaminov is a very outstanding person. In his honor a volcano in the mountains of Alaska is named, which has high more than 2000 m. At the same time Russian names have appeared also in the east of the North American continent. In 1791 a young prince Dmitry Golitsyn, who later carried out a role of the missionary, has arrived to the small for that time city of Baltimore. In honor of the Russian prince grateful Americans named the town, a curative source and the tunnel in the Appalachians mountains. During the civil war in America the Donskoy Cossack, the colonel of the Russian General Staff Ivan Turchaninov (John Turchin) has become famous. In Illinois I. Turchaninov has founded the city of Radom. The Russian name was received by one more settlement — St. Petersburg in Florida. He is obliged by it to P. A. Dementiev, the Guards officer and the former leader of the nobility. The name Moscow meets in 24 states of America. Sometimes on this way the Russian immigrants called their settlements. The biggest Moscow is in the State of Idaho where there are about 2000 inhabitants. On the territory of the State of North Dakota there is a city of Kiev. There are several Odess in Canada and the USA . The river Mother Volga on the bank of which in the middle of the last century the city of Volga has been founded is on the State of Iowa. There are also several villages with the same name. Sometimes names arose were due to a misunderstanding. The same thing has happened with Moscow in the State of Iowa. Earlier this place was called "Mosko" in honor of the Indian leader. The Russian immigrants have rethought him and have turned into Moscow. The city of Sobariya in the west of America has been transformed to Siberia in the same way by Russians. Unknown Russian immigrants in Oklahoma have founded settlements the Kremlin, the Urals. There were a lot of Belarusians besides pathfinders from Russia. Unfortunately, not much of their names are known to us. For example, in the second half of the 19th century our fellow countryman, the native of a manor of Lyada of the Igumensky County (nowadays Chervensky district) of the Minsk province Konstantin Elsky has traveled to South and North America. Language of the map of America — international also belongs both to history of the American people, and the whole world. We once again ensure that names of places are an integral part of our heritage, peculiar symbols in which historical events, lives and acts of many interesting people are reflected. These are peculiar monuments of that historical era when they have arisen.

The map of Alaska eloquently tells about a contribution of the Russian scientists to a research and development of it in the XVII—XVIII centuries. Here one can often observe the word Russian (Russian). In the south there is a settlement Russian Mishen (the Russian Mission). On the middle basin of the Kuskokwim there is a name of the low ridge the Russian mountains. On the island of Umnak, on one of the Aleutian Islands, exists the Russian bay, and on the Kenai Peninsula the Russian river flows. Many Russian names have “thawed” over time, were dissolved on modern maps of Alaska. For example, the former Bab'i islands in the Aleutian islands have turned into Baby Islands (Children's islands), and the cape Veselova on the island Unalaska is called Yreerfur Cape (Cape Spring).

At locals of Alaska tens of Russian words became current. They are: sai (tea), loska (spoon), blyutsa (dish), maslak (oil), hlebak (bread), suhare'k (crackers), mukak (flour), sasy (hours), saynikak (teapot), kulyukund (bell), nuzik (knife), knigak (book), mulyushuk (hammer), kassak (Cossack). These and many other words were borrowed from the Russians, who once occupied these places.