Text 3. Computer programming and programming languages. Active vocabulary.

1. equation – уравнение, приравнивание.

2. list of instructions – перечень команд.

3. to guard – защищать, предохранять, завершать, заканчивать.

4. appropriate sequence – необходимая последовательность.

5. program logic – логическая последовательность выполнения программы.

6. flowchart – блок-схема, составлять блок-схему.

7. flowcharting – построение блок-схемы.

8. pictorial representation – наглядное представление.

9. predefined symbols – заранее заданные символы.

10. specifics – специальные черты, характерные особенности.

11. emplate – шаблон, маска, образец, эталон.

12. pseudocode – псевдокод, псевдопрограмма.

13. burden – издержки, затраты.

14. programming rules – правила программирования.

15. to consume – потреблять, расходовать.

16. to emphasize – выделять, подчёркивать.

17. top-down approach – принцип нисходящей разработки.

18. looping logic – логическая схема выполнения операций в цикле.

19. programming language – язык программирования.

20. coded form – кодированный вид, кодированное представление.

21. to convey – передавать, сообщать.

22. to improve – улучшать, совершенствовать.

23. machine-oriented language – машинно-ориентированный язык.

24. business-oriented language – язык для программирования экономических задач.

25. problem-oriented language – проблемно-ориентированный язык.

26. string of binary – строка двоичного представления.

27. data handling – обработка данных, работа с данными.

28. field-name length – длина имени поля.

29. to incorporate features – включать свойства, особенности.

30. versatile – многофункциональный, разносторонний, универсальный.

31. generous – большой, значительный.

32. Mathematical relationship – математическая связь, соотношение.

Ex. 1. Read and translate the text.

Programming is the process of preparing a set of coded instructions which enables the computer to solve specific problems or to perform specific functions. The essence of computer programming is the encoding of the program for the computer by means of algorithms. The thing is that any problem is expressed in mathematical terms; it contains formulae, equations and calculations. But the computer cannot manipulate formulae, equations and calculations. Any problem must be specially processed for the computer to understand it, that is – coded or programmed.

The phase in which the system’s computer programs are written is called the development phase. The programs are lists of instructions that will be followed by the control unit of the central processing unit (CPU). The instructions of the program must be complete and in the appropriate sequence, or else the wrong answers will result. To guard against these errors in logic and to document the program’s logical approach, logic plans should be developed.

There are two common techniques for planning the logic of a program. The first technique is flowcharting. A flowchart is a plan in the form of a graphic or pictorial representation that uses predefined symbols to illustrate the program logic. It is, therefore, a “picture” of the logical steps to be performed by the computer. Each of the predefined symbols shapes stands for a general operation. The symbol shape communicates the nature of the general operation, and the specifics are written within the symbol. A plastic or metal guide called a template is used to make drawing the symbols easier.

The second technique for planning program logic is called pseudocode. Pseudocode is an imitation of actual program instructions. It allows a program-like structure without the burden of programming rules to follow. Pseudocode is less time-consuming for the professional programmer than is flowcharting. It also emphasizes a top-down approach to program structure. Pseudocode has three basic structures: sequence, decision, and looping logic. With these three structures, any required logic can be expressed.

The computer cannot understand instructions written in just any old way. The instructions must be written according to a set of rules. These rules are the foundation of a programming language. A programming language must convey the logical steps of the program plan in such a way that the control unit if the CPU can interpret and follow the instructions. Programming languages have improved throughout the years, just as computer hardware has improved. There are over 200 problem-oriented languages. The most common of them are: COBOL, FORTRAN, PL, RPG, BASIC, and PASCAL.

COBOL. COBOL was the most widely used business-oriented programming language. Its name is an acronym for Common Business-Oriented Language. COBOL was designed to solve problems that are oriented toward data handling and input-output operations. Of course, COBOL can perform arithmetic operations as well, but its greatest flexibility is in data handling. COBOL also was designed as a self-documenting language. Self-documenting languages are those that do not require a great deal of explanation in order to be understood by someone reading the program instructions. The self-documenting aspect of COBOL is made possible by its sentencelike structure and the very generous maximum symbolic field-name length of 30 characters. With a field-name length of up to 30 characters, the name can clearly identify the field and its purpose.

FORTRAN IV. The FORTRAN IV language is oriented toward solving problems of a mathematical nature. The name FORTRAN comes from the combination of the words formula translation. The version of FORTRAN IV has been designed as algebra-based programming language. Any formula of those mathematical relationships that can be expressed algebraically can easily be expressed as a FORTRAN instruction. FORTRAN is the most commonly used language for scientific applications.

PL / I. PL / I stands for Programming Language I. It was designed as a general-purpose language incorporating features similar to COBOL for data handling instructions and features similar to FORTRAN for mathematical instructions.

RPG II Programming language. RPG II is a business-oriented language. The name stands for report program generator. RPG is a large prewritten program. The programmer simply indicates the options within the master program that are to be used and, through a set of indicators, when they are to be used.

BASIC. BASIC is the acronym for beginner’s all-purpose symbolic instruction code. It was developed in Dartmouth College as an easy-to-learn programming language for students and inexperienced programmers. Its key design goal is simplicity. BASIC has become a very popular language in systems where many users share the use of a computer through terminals and it has become a universal language for personal computers.

PASCAL. PASCAL was named after the mathematician Blaise Pascal, who invented one of the earliest practical calculators. PASCAL is a mathematically oriented programming language and, as such, is most commonly used in mathematics, engineering, and computer science departments of colleges and universities. This language is somewhat unusual in that it was designed to be a structured language. This means that the program must be written in logical modules which are in turn called by a main controlling module. Much of PASCAL’s popularity is due to work done at the University of California at San Diego, where PASCAL has been implemented on several different computers including microcomputers.

Ex. 2. Answer the following questions, using the information from the text:

1. What is programming?

2. What is the essence of programming?

3. What should be done with the problem before processing by the computer?

4. What is a program?

5. What are instructions?

6. What is a flowchart?

7. What is the process of writing instructions called?

8. What is a code?

9. How must instructions be written?

10. What is the foundation of any programming language?

Ex. 3. Find in the text English equivalents of the following word-combinations:

Совокупность закодированных команд; суть компьютерного программирования; формулы, уравнения, вычисления; перечень команд; необходимая последовательность; защищать от ошибок; составлять план логической последовательности; общепринятая методика; наглядное представление; построение блок-схемы; заранее заданные символы; шаблон; псевдопрограмма; без издержек; расходовать меньше времени; языки программирования; в соответствии с набором правил; обработка информации; идентифицировать поле и его цели; решение проблем математического характера; сферы научного применения; универсальный язык; включать свойства; уникальные возможности.

Ex. 4. Translate into Russian:

Access program; application program; archived program; binary program; common program; database program; debugging program; free program; on-line program; off-line program; processing program; remote program; running program; simulation program; support program; utility program; watch-dog program.

Ex. 5. Translate the following sentences into Russian:

1. I should like to be a top specialist in computer technology.

2. It is necessary that the program should be debugged by the programmer.

3. It is required that the programmer should code the instructions of the program in the appropriate sequence.

4. The manager demanded that the work should be performed in time.

5. Write down the algorithm of computer operations lest you should make errors.

Ex. 6. What new information have you learnt from this text? Have you got anything to add? Discuss it in groups.

Ex. 7. Give a summary of the text.