21. Syntactical stylistic devices based on peculiar linkage

Asyndeton – is connection between parts of a case, between sentences without any formal sign. It becomes a SD if there is a deliberate emission of connectiveness in the place where they are generally expected to be. Aims: -to indicate energetic organized activities; -to show a succession of immediately following each other actions; -to accelerate the tempo of speech; -impart colloquial character.

Polysyndeton – deliberate repetition of connectives before each part where it is generally not expected. Aim: to create rhythmical effect; to make the idea more prominent.

Attachment (gap-sentence link) – peculiar way of connecting sentences which seems to be logically unconnected. Aims: - the introduction of inner represented speech; - to represent a subjective evaluation of the facts. Usually indicated by end or but.

22. Ellipses, aposiopesis, question-in-the-narrative, litotes, rhetorical questions.

Ellipsis – consists in omission of some parts of the sentence that are easily understood from the context or situation.

Aim: to imitate conversational style; to accelerate the tempo of speech; express excited state or mood of the speaker. A nominative sentence is a variant of one member structure: it has neither subject nor predicate. Because it is basis component is a noun or a noun like element.

Aposiopesis – figure of speech in which the speaker breaks off the middle of speaking as if he is unwilling or unable to continue. Aim: to indicate a strong increase of emotions; to give a hint at what remains unsaid.

Litotes – two-component structure in which two negations are linked to give a positive evaluation.

Forming:

1) negative particle “no, not” + a word with a negative affix, e.g. not hopeless;

2) “no, not” + a word with a negative meaning, e.g. not bad;

3) negative constructions, e.g. not without love;

4) adj/adv preceded by “too”, e.g. not too awful.

Function is to convey the doubts of the speaker concerning the exact characteristic of the object in question, to render subtle irony.

Rhetorical question – q-n that not requires answer. May have either positive or negative forms. The positive form predicts the negative answer. The negative form predicts the positive answer.

Question in the narrative– asked and answered by the same person, usually the author.

Aim: to establish a kind of contact between the speaker and the listener; to give the listener time to absorb what has been said; to give and impression of confidence.

23. Discourse. Types of discourse

Discourse – the process of activation of the text by relating it to a context of use.

Much of what we read can be described as narrative. Narrative writing is characterized by its quality of telling the events in the order in which they occurred, that is, their chronological sequence. In a passage, authors cannot write about every event as it develops. Therefore, they select key events or ideas to highlight the development of the story , incident, article, or text passage. Recognizing that authors are selective in presenting ideas and events in stories, essays, news articles, and text passages can help the reader to understand the ideas that are important in the development of the selection.

You can better understand the special sequential relationship of ideas and events when you recognize the use of the flashback. The flashback helps to explain an idea, event, or character by interrupting the narrative with some incident that took place in the past.

Recognizing who the narrator is and the point of view or opinion the narrator expresses can give the reader a better understanding of the author's attitudes about people, places, events, and ideas.

Knowing the facts and following the sequence of ideas can help the reader to predict possible future actions based logically on ideas developed in the selection.

While in narrative writing the author emphasizes a chronological ordering of events or ideas, in descriptive writing he draws a picture for the reader by describing the characteristics, traits, or qualities of a subject.

Understanding a descriptive passage requires that we recognize how the author builds a description by listing the characteristics of the subject, that is, the people, places, situations or events, and ideas. Recognizing these characteristics helps the reader build a solid base of literal comprehension.

Authors use a variety of techniques when they write descriptively. Recognizing that an author uses facts and opinions to describe people, settings, situations, and ideas can help the reader to determine the author's point of view. A fact can be proven or disproven with evidence; an opinion represents the author's point of view and cannot be proven. However, the author can use facts to persuade the reader of the correctness of his or her opinion.

Authors often describe two or more subjects for the purpose of comparing or contrasting them - that is, showing how they are similar or different with respect to a specific trait. Recognizing that authors use comparison/contrast signal words helps direct the reader s attention to those comparisons and contrasts.

Analytical writing. Authors analyze people, places, situations, or ideas by naming common characteristics and by describing how the subjects are similar and different with respect to each characteristic. Identifying the characteristics and recognizing the stated similarities or differences helps readers to understand important facts in passages that present comparisons and contrasts.

Authors use facts and opinions to express views when they compare or contrast subjects. Frequently they present a limited or one-sided description.

When authors compare or contrast two or more people, objects, or ideas, they analyze their common characteristics, that is, the parts that contribute to the whole. When they compare or contrast two or more situations, events, or processes, they analyze the common steps or stages in each. And when they compare or contrast two or more places, they analyze the scenes spatially. Identifying similarities and differences between compared or contrasted subjects can help the reader to understand the special characteristics of those subjects. We can use our understanding of the subjects to make logical predictions about future actions and logical assumptions about the nature of the subject.

In argumentative writing, the author presents a point of view, that is, takes a position or a stand on a topic and offers support for that position.

Realizing that the author makes a statement and then offers support for his or her position can help the reader to understand argumentative writing. When we identify the causes that support a position or the effects of that position, we focus on the .important/cm in argumentative writing.

Recognizing that authors signal that the effects of a position will be developed as part of an argument helps the reader to focus on those effects. Some frequently used signals are: as a result, as a consequence, effect, it led to, etc.

Authors support their position statements by developing causes, effects, or a combination of both. Recognizing and distinguishing between causes and effects helps us to comprehend the important ideas in essays, stories, articles, and text passages.

Recognizing that authors use facts and opinions to develop a point of view can help readers to understand argumentative writing in which authors support their positions with causes and effects, any of which may be a fact or an opinion.