The negative form of the verb have to

1. Note the following.

a) The negative form of the modal verb have to is translated as:

«не нужно», «не обязательно».

b) The negative form of the verb need can be also used with the same meaning.

2. Translate the sentences.

1. Solar collectors do not have to be placed on the roof of the building for which they are intended to be used.

2. Just as you don’t have to reinvent the light bulb to make use of it, you needn’t recreate the works of the great thinkers to enjoy them and profit with them.

Must, could, might, may

1. Read the sentences paying special attention to the parts in bold.

1. We may never find any direct evidence of the existence of other universes, and we certainly will never get to visit one.

2. Build a better mousetrap, and the world may beat a path to your door – if it doesn’t build a better mouse instead.

3. In a sense, artificial intelligence will be the ultimate tool because it will help us build all possible tools. Advanced Al systems could maneuver people out of existence, or they could help us build a new and better world. Aggressors could use them for conquest, or foresighted defenders could use them to stabilize peace. They could even help us control Al itself. The hand that rocks the Al cradle may well rule the world

4. But if life can arise, it would again happen much like it does in our world. Physicists in such a universe might be puzzled by the fact that the up and strange quarks would have almost identical masses. They might even imagine that this amazing coincidence has an anthropic explanation, based on the need for organic chemistry

2. Answer the questions.

1. Is the information in the sentences above completely realistic?

2. Does it express personal, subjective attitude of the author?

3. Do the predicates in bold refer to the present or to the past?

4. Should we translate the verb could as «могли» or as «возможно», «могли бы»?

3. Translate the sentences above.

Must , may, might + the Perfect Infinitive

1. Read the sentences.

1. In the old days of classical physics, you might have wanted to predict what a billiard ball would do when it ran into another billiard ball or the side of the table.

2. A decade ago, holographic systems promised to revolutionize data storage. The early hype may have evaporated, but the technology quietly progressed, and working devices are now on the market.

3. It executed an instruction in 1.2 milliseconds, which must have seemed phenomenal at the time.

4. In Europe the mobile phone market may have stagnated but across the world it has leapt from obscurity towards ubiquity.

5. We cannot predict particular advances in science and technology. At the end of the nineteenth century, who could have anticipated such discoveries as the theory of relativity or plate tectonics; who could have anticipated quantum mechanics, the implications of Heisenberg's indeterminacy principle, and the work in particle physics carried out by Leon Lederman and others at CERN.

6. These arguments suggest that during inflation the cosmological constant and other parameters could have taken a virtually limitless range of different values.

2. Answer the question.

Do the predicates in bold refer to present or pas situations?

3. Note the form of the Infinitive in the sentences.

4. Translate the sentences above.

Could, may, might + the Continuous Infinitive

1. Study the structure of the sentences.

1. Soon, many surgeons could be turning to nanotechnology and performing delicate tasks by remotely controlling tiny robots, similar in size to a grain of rice, that could travel through the body.

2. Doctors are discovering that while we may be growing more similar in some respects, in others, they must treat the sexes completely differently.

3. The conditions of modern life could be driving changes to genes for certain behavioral traits.

2. Explain the use of the Continuous Infinitive in the sentences above.

2. Translate the sentences.

Will, won’t ,would, wouldn’t

1. Translate the sentences.

Note the meaning of the modal verbs as the desire to do / not to do something.

1. We set out to show it wouldn’t work and our simulation ended up indicating that it would.

2. These approaches won’t do anything to help ocean acidification.

3. In 1850 Guitard found that when dusty air was electrified, the particles of dust would tend to attach themselves together in the form of strings.

4. in 1879, it was observed' that drops of water from a small fountain, when exposed to the influence of a charged piece of sealing-wax, would not separate into small drops, but would cohere in large ones.

Shell, should, shouldn’t

1. Translate the following sentences.

Note that the modal verbs are used with the meaning of giving advice and recommendation.

1. Science can help discover the causes and effects of climate change, but what we should do is an ethical question.

2. A novice like me probably shouldn’t be working with 120 volts of alternating current.

3. The far side of the Moon should not be confused with the dark side, which is the hemisphere that is not being illuminated by the Sun at a given moment.

4. This frequently is viewed as the principal contribution provided by von Neumann's insight into the nature of what a computer should be.

5. In theory, under weightless conditions, it should be possible to fabricate ball bearings, grow semiconductor crystals and purify Pharmaceuticals without imperfections caused by gravity.1. 6. 6. This combined observational and theoretical effort should shed light on various mysteries that now plague the theory of galaxy formation.

Should, shouldn’t + the Perfect Infinitive

1. Translate the following sentences.

Note the meaning of something that didn’t happen in the past and we regret it.

1. We should have evaluated the well being of future generations.

2. The rich shouldn’t have perpetrated an injustice on the world’s poor by emitting greenhouse gases.

Need, ought to, dare (semi-modals)

1. Translate the sentences.

1. They need only study the brain's neural structure and join artificial neurons to form the same functional pattern.

2. Another phenomenon that observers need to take into account is that cosmic expansion has stretched the photons to longer wave lengths.

3. The forces and particles of nature ought to be described, preferably including their key properties, such as interaction strength.

4. The author describes in his book how Copernicus dared to displace the Earth from the centre of the system< and how Kepler and Newton provided the laws needed to predict the planets’ wandering in the context of Copernician system.

5. We need to be thinking about how to help developing nations that cannot grow food to industrialize so they can get foreign exchange to buy food.

2. Note the following.

The verb need can be used both with and without to.

Part two

Practice

1. Translate the sentences.

1. Just two pulses were detected over almost a year, and they might have been caused by dark matter.

2. Such a functional approach began with LISP (1961), but had to be forced into a conventional hardware-software environment. New functional programming architectures may be developed from the ground up.

3. In theory, under weightless conditions, it should be possible to fabricate ball bearings grow semiconductor crystals and purify pharmaceuticals without imperfections caused by gravity.

4. Science could no longer be expected to predict with certainty the outcome of experiments.

5. Cosmologists may not actually need to invoke exotic forms of energy. If we live in an emptier-than-average region of space, then the cosmic expansion rate varies with position, which could be mistaken for a variation in time, or acceleration.

6 The glaciers, particularly in the Himalayas, may disappear and cause some of the major rivers to become much more variable, which will have negative effects on yields in south Asia. At the same time, traditional seed varieties and livestock breeds that might provide a genetic resource to adapt to climate change are being lost.

7. If we could document the spontaneous generation of just one complex life-form from inanimate matter, then at least a few creatures seen in the fossil record might have originated this way.

8. The Cryogenic Dark Matter Search (CDMS) experiment, located in the deep Soudan mine in Minnesota, is designed to directly detect new elementary particles that might make up the dark matter known to dominate our galaxy. In early December rumors started circulating that the CDMS experiment might actually have seen a signal.

9. To appreciate the significance of such an event, one needs to recognize that scientists have spent the past 40 years building a magnificent theoretical house of cards that could have toppled with the slightest whiff of inconsistent data.

10. It is an unreal feeling, if you are a theorist like me, to imagine that nature might actually obey the delicate theories and fanciful ideas you develop at your desk late at night on scraps of paper or at a computer screen.

11. According to Dr Friend, future advancements could be aided by greater collaboration between different disciplines, such as engineering and medicine.

12. This is one of the questions we might be able to answer if we could get Modha and Markram to directly compare their models.

13. The effects of quantum gravity, for example, could generate a huge negative pressure, causing the star to emit most of its mass in late collapse stages.

14. Further, classical processes such as powerful shock formations caused by inhomogeneities in matter densities near the naked singularity could cause it to explode.

15. A good technology must by definition be useful. It must be able to survive fierce buffeting by market forces, economic and social conditions, governmental policies, quirky timing, whims of fashion and all the vagaries of human nature and custom.

16. If your accept the idea that this might be only one of many possible universes, then hat makes this concept more plausible. Universes that started out more chaotic might not have survived or evolved to support intelligent life.

2. Explain the use of modal verbs.

To von Neumann, the key to building a general purpose device was in its ability to store not only its data and the intermediate results of computation, but also to store the instructions, or orders that brought about the computation. In a special purpose machine the computational procedure could be part of the hardware. In a general purpose one the instructions must be as changeable as the numbers they acted upon. Therefore, why not encode the instructions into numeric form and store instructions and data in the same memory? This frequently is viewed as the principal contribution provided by von Neumann's insight into the nature of what a computer should be.

Writing a paper

1. Write a paragraph (6–8 sentences) dealing with some possible/impossible things or events (past, present or future).

Use some facts from your field of specialization.

2. Use your imagination to express some bold ideas about future scientific advances.

Use the verbs might, could.

Part III