The separation of powers

O ne of the fundamental principles underlying the British constitution is that of the separation of powers. According to this principle, developed by the eighteenth-century French philosopher Montesquieu, all state power can be divided into three types: executive, legislative and judicial. The executive represents what we would call the Government and its servants, such as the police and civil servants; the legislative power is Parliament; and judicial authority is exercised by the judges.

T he basis of Montesquieu's theory was that these three types of power should not be concentrated in the hands of one person or group, since this would give them absolute control, with no one to check that the power was exercised for the good of the country. Instead, Montesquieu argued, each type of power should be exercised by a different body, so that they can each keep an eye on the activities of the other and make sure that they do not behave unacceptably.

Montesquieu believed that England, at the time when he was writing, was an excellent example of this principle being applied in practice. Whether that was true even then is debatable, and there are certainly areas of weakness now.

The Supremacy of Parliament

A second fundamental principle of our constitution has traditionally been the supremacy of Parliament (also called parliamentary sovereignty). This means that Parliament is the highest source of English law; so long as a law has been passed according to the rules of parliamentary procedure, it must be applied by the courts. The legal philosopher, Dicey, famously explained that according to the principle of parliamentary sovereignty Parliament has «under the English Constitution, the right to make or unmake any law whatever; and, further, that no person or body is recognised by the law of England as having a right to override or set aside the legislation of Parliament». So if, for example, Parliament had passed a law stating that all newborn boys had to be killed, or that all dog owners had to keep a cat as well, there might well be an enormous public outcry, but the laws would still be valid and the courts would, in theory at least, be obliged to uphold them.

The rule of law

T

Albert Venn Dicey

he third basic principle of British constitution is known as the rule of law. It is developed from the writings of the nineteenth-century British jurist and constitutional theorist Albert Venn Dicey (1835—1922). According to A. Dicey, the rule of law had three elements. First, that there should be no sanction without breach, meaning that nobody should be punished by the state unless they had broken a law. Secondly, that one law should govern everyone, including both ordinary citizens and state officials. Thirdly, that the rights of the individual were not secured by a written constitution, but by the decisions of judges in ordinary law.

The real importance of the rule of law today lies in the basic idea underlying all three of Dicey's points (but especially the first) that the state should use its power according to agreed rules, and not arbitrarily.

A practice that has recently come to light which appears to breach the rule of law is that of «extraordinary rendition». This describes the kidnapping of people by state representatives and their subsequent detention, without recourse to established legal procedures (such as a formal request for the extradition of a suspect). The US intelligence service has kidnapped a large number of foreign nationals suspected of involvement with the terrorist organisation, Al Qaeda, from around the world and removed them to secret locations without following any established legal procedures. It has been alleged that the UK has provided the US with some assistance in this practice through, in particular, the provision of information about suspects and the use of UK airports.

The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 introduced some major reforms to the British constitution. This Act expressly states in its first section that it «does not adversely affect... the existing constitutional principle of the rule of law».

Task 19. Find the equivalents in the text:

судебная власть осуществляется судьями

пристально следить за деятельностью других

сомнительный

основной принцип

суверенитет парламента

отменить закон парламента

общественный протест

принцип господства права

нет наказаний при отсутствии нарушений

закон должен управлять каждым

защищены писаной конституцией

обращение к установленным правовым процедурам

разведка

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:

1. What are the functions of different branches of power?

2. What does the separation of powers mean?

3. How do you understand the principle of parliamentary sovereignty?

4. Who can control the legislative activity of Parliament?

5. What are the elements of the rule of law?

6. What are the examples of violation of the rule of law today?

Task 20. Complete the text using words and word combinations from the box:

case law to standardize the law conquest

more predictable in the south the hierarchy of the

modern court system different parts decisions of judges

Sources of english law

English law stems from seven main sources, though these vary a great deal in importance. The basis of English law today is _______ (a mass of judge-made decisions) which lays down rules to be followed in future cases. Another form of law is a statute, or an Act of Parliament. As well as being a source of law in their own right, statutes contribute to case law, since the courts occasionally have to interpret statutory provisions, and such decisions lay down new precedents. Delegated legislation is a related source, laying down detailed rules made to implement the broader provisions of statutes.

The legislation of the European Community is the only type of law that can take precedence over statutes in the UK and influence the decisions of the courts in interpreting statutes. Custom, equity and obligations relating to international treaties are minor sources of law, though Britain's obligations under the European Convention on Human Rights have produced notable contributions to law reform.

Before the Norman ______, different areas of England were governed by different systems of law, often adapted from those of the various invaders who had settled there; roughly speaking, Dane law applied in the north, Mercian law around the midlands, and Wessex law ______ and west. Each was based largely on local custom. The king had little control over the country as a whole, and there was no effective central government.

When William the Conqueror gained the English throne in 1066, he established a strong central government and began, among other things, _______. Representatives of the king were sent out to the countryside to check local administration, and were given the job of adjudicating in local disputes, according to local law. When these «itinerant justices» returned to Westminster, they were able to discuss the various customs of _______of the country, and, by a process of sifting, reject unreasonable ones and accept those that seemed rational, to form a consistent body of rules.

During this process of sifting — which went on for around two centuries — the principle of stare decisis («let the decision stand») grew up. Whenever a new problem of law came to be decided, the decision formed a rule to be followed in all similar cases, making the law _______. In the middle of the 13^th century the «common law» ruled the whole country. The principles behind this «common law» are still used today in creating case law.

From the basic idea of stare decisis, a hierarchy of precedent grew up, in line with _____________. A judge must follow decisions made in courts which are higher up the hierarchy than his or her own. This process was made easier by the establishment of a regular system of publication of reports of cases in the higher courts. The body of decisions made by the higher courts, which the lower ones must respect, is known as «case law» (or «common law»). Case law comes from the ________. The decisions of juries don't make case law.

Notes:

the Norman conquest	завоевание (Англии) норманнами (1066 г.)
William the Conqueror	Вильгельм Завоеватель
Dane law	датские законы (установленные в северо-восточной Британии в Х в.); область, где действовали эти законы
Mercian	мерсийский
to produce notable contributions to…	внести значительный вклад в…
statutory provisions	положения/условия статутов
delegated legislation	право министров издавать приказы, имеющие силу законов
itinerant justice	судья, объезжающий свой округ
to lay down rules to be followed in future cases	устанавливать/сформулировать правила, которым необходимо следовать при рассмотрении других дел
to lay down new precedents	создавать новые прецеденты
to adjudicate (on, upon) in local disputes according to local law	выносить решение/судить местные тяжбы в соответствии с местными законами
to sift	тщательно рассматривать, анализировать (факты)
Sifting	тщательный анализ

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS ABOUT THE SOURCES OF ENGLISH LAW:

1. What are the main sources of English law?

2. What is a statute?

3. What is delegated legislation?

4. How great is the influence of the legislation of the European Community upon the British court system?

5. How great is the influence of customs, equity and obligations relating to international treaties upon the British court system?

6. How great was the influence of the European Convention on Human Rights upon the law reform in Britain a few decades ago?

7. What systems of law were there in different areas of England before the Norman conquest?

8. Did William the Conqueror establish a strong central government?

9. What did William the Conqueror do to standardize the law?

10. How did the «itinerant justices» form a consistent body of rules?

11. How long did the process of sifting during which the principle of stare decisis grew up go on?

12. What does the principle of stare decisis mean?

13. When did the «common law» rule the whole country?

14. Do British lawyers still use the principles behind this «common law» in creating case law today?

15. Where from did the hierarchy of precedent as well as the hierarchy of the modern court system grow up?

16. How does the hierarchy of precedent work today?

17. Is there a regular system of publication of reports of cases in the higher courts?

18. Do the decisions of juries make case law?

Task 21. Fill in the gaps with the words and word combinations from the box:

lay down contribute to as a whole judge-made decisions delegated legislation statute minor sources

take precedence over a consistent body of rules higher courts predictable standardize the law relating to

judges adjudicated lower courts justice itinerant justices

1. Case law is a mass of ___.

2. Statutes ___ case law.

3. A ___ is an Act of Parliament.

4. Court decisions ___ new precedents.

5. Customs, equity and obligations ___ international treaties are ___ of law.

6. ___ lays down detailed rules to implement the broader provisions of statutes.

7. The legislation of the European Community can ____ statutes in the UK and influence the decisions of the courts in interpreting statutes.

8. Before the Norman conquest the king had little control over the country ___.

9. When William the Conqueror gained the English throne he began to ___.

10. The king's representatives checked local administration and ___ in local disputes according to local law.

11. The «itinerant justices» rejected unreasonable customs, accepted rational ones and formed ___.

12. In the middle of the 13^th century the law became more ___.

13. There is a regular system of publication of reports of cases in the ___.

14. The ___ must respect the decisions of the higher courts.

15. Case law comes from the decisions of ___, not from those of juries.

16. The king sent ______ to the countryside to check the local administration.

17. The police do everything they can to bring criminals to ___.

Task 22. Translate the following words and word combinations into English:

1. Прецедентное право; основа английского права; семь основных источников английского права; сформулировать правила, которым необходимо следовать при рассмотрении других (будущих) дел; влиять на решения судов; законодательство европейского сообщества; единственный вид права; формулировать подробные правила в целях исполнения положений статутов; перед норманнским завоеванием; на севере, на юге, на западе, на востоке; эффективное централизованное управление; иметь контроль над страной в целом; выносить решения по тяжбам в соответствии с местными законами; в целом; в ходе тщательного анализа, который продолжался два века.

2. Сколько существует источников английского права? Отличаются ли они по важности?

3. В настоящее время основа английского права — прецедентное прав.

4. Прецедентное право — это блок судебных решений, которым необходимо следовать при рассмотрении других дел.

5. Второй источник английского права — это статут (или постановление парламента).

6. Судьи вынуждены учитывать положения статутов, а вынесенные таким образом решения создают новые судебные прецеденты.

7. Третий, связанный с предыдущим, источник английского права — это право министров издавать приказы, имеющие силу законов.

8. Обычаи, право справедливости и обязательства по международным договорам — это дополнительные / второстепенные источники английского права.

9. Европейская конвенция о защите прав человека внесла значительный вклад в правовую реформу Великобритании несколько десятилетий назад.

10. Перед норманнским завоеванием в разных регионах Англии действовали разные системы права, основанные на местных обычаях.

11. До норманнского завоевания в Англии не было эффективного централизованного управления. Король не мог контролировать всю страну полностью.

12. Каждое новое судебное решение представляло собой правило, которое должно было соблюдаться во всех последующих делах, что делало законодательство более предсказуемым.

13. В середине тринадцатого века система прецедентного права доминировала на территории всей страны.

14. В основе современной судебной системы лежит принцип stare decisis.

15. Судья должен придерживаться судебных решений судов более высокой инстанции.

16. Блок решений судов высших инстанций является основой прецедентного права.

Task 23. Complete the sentences using the word combinations from the second column:

(a)

There are seven main sources of English law: Before the Norman conquest Dane law was To standardize the law William the Conqueror Before the Norman conquest Mercian law was Before the Norman conquest there was no Before the Norman conquest the Wessex law was William the Conqueror gained the English throne When the «itinerant justices» returned to Westminster During the process of sifting the «itinerant justices»

in the north of England. sent his representatives to the countryside to adjudicate in local disputes according to local law. in the south and in the west of England. case law, statutes, delegated legislation, the legislation of the European Community, customs, equity and obligations relating to international treaties. around the midlands. they discussed various customs of different parts of the country and formed a consistent body of rules. effective central government. rejected unreasonable local customs and accepted those that seemed rational. in 1066.

(b)

The principle of stare decisis Each new court decision forms a rule British lawyers use the principle of stare decisis The hierarchy of the modern court system grew up The principle of stare decisis A judge must follow decisions of courts Case law comes from The decisions of juries The «common law» ruled England

in the middle of the 13th century. from the basic idea of stare decisis. means «let the decision stand». makes the law more predictable. which are higher up the hierarchy than his own. to be followed in all similar cases. the decisions of judges. in creating case law today. don't make case law.

Task 24. Match the English expressions with their Russian equivalents in the table on the basis of the text «How Judicial Precedent Works»:

to follow a case to distinguish two cases to overrule a case to reverse a case

считать решение по делу недействительным/аннулировать аннулировать/отменить/изменить решение по делу дать вердикт по делу на основе прецедентного судебного решения провести различие между двумя судебными делами

How Judicial Precedent Works

If the judge sees that there is a similar earlier court decision he may do any of the following:

Follow. If the facts are sufficiently similar to those of the earlier case, the judge follows the precedent and applies the law in the same way to produce a decision.

Distinguish. If the facts of the case before the judge are different from those of the earlier one, the judge distinguishes the two cases and need not follow the earlier one.

Overrule. Where the earlier decision was made in a lower court, the judge can overrule that earlier decision if he disagrees with the lower court's interpretation of the law. The earlier decision remains the same but will not be followed.

Reverse. In case of appealing the decision of a lower court to a higher one, the higher court may change it if the judge feels that the lower court has wrongly interpreted the law. So when a decision is reversed, the higher court usually also overrules the lower court's statement of the law.

In practice the process is rather more complicated than this, since decisions are usually made on the basis of several previous cases, not one.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of case law?

T ask 25. Read the text below and give a definition of a «judgment»:

Parts of the Judgment

In deciding a case, there are two basic tasks; first, establishing what the facts are, meaning what actually happened); and secondly, how the law applies to those facts. The judges listen to the evidence and the legal argument and then prepare a written decision as to which party wins. This decision is known as the judgment, and is usually long, containing quite a lot of comment which is not strictly relevant to the case, as well as an explanation of the legal principles on which the judge has made a decision. The explanation of the legal principles on which the decision is made is called the ratio decidendi — Latin for the «reason for deciding». It is this part of the judgment, known as binding precedent, which forms case law. All the parts of the judgment which do not form part of the ratio decidendi of the case are called obiter dicta — which is Latin for «things said by the way». None of the obiter dicta forms part of the case law, though judges in later cases may be influenced by it, and it is said to be a persuasive precedent.

Notes:

a binding precedent обязывающий прецедент

a persuasive precedent убедительный прецедент

Task 26. Translate the following words and word combinations into English:

1. рассмотреть дело в суде; две основные задачи; установить, каковы факты (что в реальности) произошло; как закон может быть применен к данным фактам; слушать свидетельские показания; юридический спор; подготовить в письменной форме решение о том, в пользу какой стороны решено дело; судебное решение; прямо/строго относящийся к делу; часть судебного решения; формировать прецедентное право; в последующих делах; использовать часть судебного решения obiter dicta.

2. В судебном решении содержится много комментариев, которые часто не имеют прямого отношения к делу.

3. В судебном решении присутствует также объяснение юридических принципов, на базе которых судья выносит свой вердикт.

4. Часть судебного решения, известная как обязывающий прецедент, является источником формирования прецедентного права.

5. Все части судебного решения, которые не формируют ratio decidendi, называются obiter dicta.

6. Часть судебного решения, известная как убедительный прецедент, не является источником формирования прецедентного права, хотя судьи могут использовать ее постулаты в последующих делах.

Task 27. Complete the sentences using the word combinations from the second column:

In deciding a case there are two basic tasks: Obiter dicta is Latin for Ratio decidendi is Latin for The judge prepares a written decision The comment in the judgement The ratio decidendi part of the judgement is known as The obiter dicta part of the judgement is often called

the «reason for deciding». as to which party wins. «things said by the way». is not strictly relevant to the case. first, establishing what the facts are; and secondly, how the law applies to those facts. a persuasive precedent. a binding precedent.

Task 28. Fill in the gaps with the words and word combinations from the box:

evidence legal principles persuasive precedent applies

is known judgement binding precedent later cases

1. The witness gave ___ in a clear firm voice.

2. This rule ___ to everybody.

3. The written decision as to which party wins ___ as the judgement.

4. The ___ is usually long because it contains a lot of comment which is not strictly relevant to the case.

5. The explanation of the ___ on which the judge makes the decision is known as ratio decidendi.

6. The part of the judgement known as ___ forms case law.

7. The part of the judgement known as ___ does not usually form the case law.

8. Judges in ___ may use the obiter dicta part though it does not usually form the case law.

Task 29. Complete the text using words and word combinations from the box:

common law (2) applied this common law the «fountain of justice» the Middle Ages

one of the available types of writ to do justice in each case on a flexible basis

with the people a developed case law and recognizable principles predictable

Equity

In ordinary language, equity means fairness, but in law it applies to a specific set of legal principles, which add to those provided in the common law. Lawyers often contrast «common law» and «equity». Equity and ______ may be different, but both are law.

The common law was developed after the Norman Conquest through the «itinerant justices» traveling around the country and sorting out disputes. By about the twelfth century, common law courts which ________ had developed. Civil actions in these courts had to be started by a writ, which set out the cause of the action or the grounds for the claim made, and there grew up different types of writ. Early on, new writs were created to suit new circumstances, but in the thirteenth century this was stopped. Litigants had to fit their circumstances to ________. If the case did not fall within one of those types, there was no way of bringing the case to the common law court.

In _______ many of the dissatisfied parties petitioned the king (known as ________) who didn't want to spend time considering those petitions and relied on the advice of his Chancellor _________. The Chancellor, the king's chief minister, was usually a member of the clergy, and was thought of as «keeper of the king's conscience». Soon litigants began to petition the Chancellor himself, and in the end of the 15^th century (by 1474), petitions were referred directly to the Lord Chancellor who dealt with cases ________. He was more concerned with the fair result than with rigid principles of common law. This was the beginning of the Court of Chancery which became very popular ________.

In 1615, in the Earl of Oxford's Case, conflicting judgments of the common law courts and the Court of Chancery were referred to the king for a decision, and he advised that where there was conflict, equity should prevail. Had this decision not been made, equity would have been worthless — it could not fulfill its role of filling in the gaps of the ______ unless it was dominant.

In the seventeenth century the initial flexibility of equity led to uncertainty, and the jurist John Seldon observed that equity varied with the length of the Chancellor's foot. Strictly formulated rules of common law were predictable. Equity was unpredictable. Finally equity lost flexibility and conscience and became formalized. Lord Nottingham (Lord Chancellor in 1673—1682) decided that a judge exercising equity jurisdiction should follow existing principles. Equity began to be ruled by precedent, had ________. By the nineteenth century, equity had become _______, and was no less formalized and rigid than the common law.

So there was no reason why it needed its own courts. Consequently the Judicature Acts of 1873—1875, which established the basis of the court structure that we have today, provided that equity and common law could both be administered by all courts, and that there would no longer be different procedures for seeking equitable and common law remedies. Although the Court of Chancery remained as a division of the High Court, like all other courts it can now apply both common law and equity.

Notes:

a writ	предписание, повестка
to serve writ on smb	послать кому-либо судебную повестку
to set out the cause of the action	изложить причину судебного иска
grounds for the claim	основания для судебного иска
to raise a claim	предъявить претензию, иск
to lay claim to smth	предъявлять права на что-либо
to claim damages	требовать возмещения убытков
Chancellor	канцлер
Lord (High) Chancellor	лорд-канцлер (глава судебного ведомства и верховный судья Англии, председатель палаты лордов и одного из отделений верховного суда)
the Court of Chancery	суд лорд-канцлера, суд совести
equitable	справедливый, беспристрастный

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS ABOUT EQUITY:

1. What does 'equity' mean in ordinary language?

2. What does 'equity' mean in law?

3. When did the common law appear?

4. What did litigants have to start civil actions with?

5. What was the purpose of the writs which litigants have to start civil actions with?

6. Why were new writs created in the 11^th and in the 12^th centuries? When did it stop?

7. Could litigants bring the case to the common law court if the case did not fall within one of the available types of writ?

8. Who did many of the dissatisfied parties petition in the Middle Ages? Why?

9. Whose advice did the king rely on to do justice? Why?

10. When were petitions referred directly to the Lord Chancellor, and not to the king?

11. In what way did the Lord Chancellor deal with the cases referred to him?

12. Why did the Court of Chancery become very popular with the people?

13. Was equity predictable or unpredictable? Was its flexibility an advantage or a disadvantage (преимущество или недостаток) in comparison with the strictly formulated rules of common law?

14. What did the initial flexibility of the Court of Chancery lead to in the seventeenth century?

15. What did the jurist John Seldon say about equity?

16. When and why did equity lose its flexibility and conscience and become formalized?

17. What did Lord Nottingham think about administering justice in the Court of Chancery?

18. What legal principles did the Judicature Acts of 1873—1875 establish?

19. Did the Court of Chancery remain as a division of the High Court or as an independent body?

20. Can all courts administer both equity and common law today?

Task 30. Complete the sentences using words and word combinations from the box:

ordinary language flexible basis rigid principles legal principles grounds for the claim

fair result «itinerant justices» bring the case exercising equity jurisdiction

circumstances adoption unpredictable administer

(1) In ___ equity means fairness.

(2) In law equity applies to a number of ___ which add to those of common law.

(3) The common law appeared after the Norman conquest through the ___ traveling around the country.

(4) Litigants had to set out the cause of the action or the ___ in the writ.

(5) At first courts created new writs to suit new ___.

(6) If the case did not fall within one of the available types of writ, litigants could not ___ to the common law court.

(7) The Lord Chancellor was more concerned with the ___ than with ___ of common law.

(8) The Lord Chancellor dealt with cases on a ___.

(9) Strictly formulated rules of common law were predictable and equity was ___.

(10) Lord Nottingham decided that a judge ___ should follow existing principles.

(11) With the ___ of the system of precedent in the Court of Chancery equity became as formalized and rigid as the common law.

(12) The Judicature Acts of 1873—1875 provided that all courts could ___ both equity and common law.

Task 31. Translate the following words and word combinations into English:

противопоставлять общее право и право справедливости

возбудить дело против кого-либо

изложить причину судебного иска

основания для предъявления претензий

разные виды судебных исков

создавать новые формы судебных исков

соответствовать новым условиям

не выходить за рамки существующих типов судебных исков

обратиться с иском в суд общего права

средние века

недовольная сторона

подать прошение королю

известный как «источник справедливости»

полагаться на советы/суждения лорд-канцлера

рассматривать судебные дела с гибкостью

беспокоиться о справедливости решения

жесткие/негибкие принципы общего права

первоначальная гибкость суда лорд-канцлера

привести к неопределенности

четко сформулированные законы/правила общего права

предсказуемый/непредсказуемый

в конце концов

потерять гибкость и совесть

стать формальным

судья, отправляющий правосудие в рамках права справедливости

следовать/принимать решение на основе уже действующих/существующих принципов

к девятнадцатому веку

принятие прецедентной системы в суде лорд-канцлера

отправлять правосудие на базе как общего права, так и права справедливости

заложить основы структуры судопроизводства

подобно другим судам

структурное подразделение Высокого Суда.

1. В своем обычном языковом значении термин «equity» обозначает справедливость.

2. В юриспруденции термин «equity» применяется относительно нескольких правовых принципов, которые являются дополнением к общему праву.

3. Чтобы возбудить дело, истцы должны были послать ответчику судебную повестку определенной формы.

4. В судебном иске истец должен был изложить причину судебного иска и указать основания для предъявления претензий.

5. Новые формы судебных исков соответствовали новым условиям.

6. Истцу приходилось формулировать свои претензии таким образом, чтобы это соответствовало одному из уже существующих типов судебных исков.

7. В Средние века многие недовольные подавали прошение королю.

8. Король часто полагался на суждение лорда-канцлера при отправлении правосудия.

9. В пятнадцатом веке люди обращались с прошениями напрямую к лорд-канцлеру, который считался «хранителем совести короля».

10. Лорд-канцлера больше волновала справедливость решения, нежели жесткие принципы общего права.

11. Суд лорд-канцлера стал очень популярен.

12. В семнадцатом веке первоначальная гибкость суда лорд-канцлера привела к неопределенности.

13. Джон Селдон заметил, что справедливость варьировалась в зависимости от размера ноги лорд-канцлера.

14. Лорд-канцлер решил, что судья, отправляющий правосудие в рамках права справедливости, должен принимать решение на основе уже действующих принципов.

15. С принятием прецедентной системы в суде лорд-канцлера правосудие на базе «права справедливости» стало таким же заформализованным и негибким, как и в судах общего права.

16. Подобно всем другим судам суд лорд-канцлера в наши дни принимает решения на основе принципов как общего права, так и права справедливости.

Task 32. (a) Match the English expressions with their Russian equivalents in the table:

to start an action against smb to set out the cause of the action to set out the grounds for the claim to suit new circumstances to bring the case to the common law court the Middle Ages equity а dissatisfied party the Court of Chancery rigid principles to contrast «common law» and «equity»

изложить причину судебного иска обратиться с иском в суд общего права возбудить дело против кого-либо право справедливости соответствовать новым условиям средние века изложить основания для предъявления претензий недовольная сторона жесткие принципы противопоставлять общее право и право справедливости суд лорд-канцлера / суд совести

(b) Match the English expressions with their Russian equivalents in the table:

to rely on the advice of the Chancellor to lose flexibility to administer both equity and common law conscience to become predictable to lead to uncertainty to petition the king strictly formulated rules to exercise equity jurisdiction to follow existing principles

потерять гибкость совесть отправлять правосудие на базе как общего права, так и права справедливости полагаться на советы канцлера привести к неопределенности подать прошение королю стать предсказуемым отправлять правосудие в рамках права справедливости принимать решение на основе уже действующих принципов четко сформулированные правила

(c) Complete the sentences using the word combinations from the second column:

In ordinary language equity In law equity applies to the legal principles of Lawyers often contrast 'common law' In the 13th century litigants had to fit their circumstances If the case did not fall within one of the available types of writ, In the Middle Ages the dissatisfied parties often In the Middle Ages the king was known as In the Middle Ages the Lord Chancellor was known as The Court of Chancery became very popular because In the 15th century petitions were referred directly

flexibility and conscience. and 'equity'. means fairness. to one of the available types of writ. litigants could not bring the case to the common law court. the 'fountain of justice'. petitioned the king. the Lord Chancellor was more concerned with the fair result than with rigid principles of common law. the 'keeper of the king's conscience'. to the Lord Chancellor.

(d) Complete the sentences using the word combinations from the second column:

With the adoption of the system of precedent, John Seldon observed that The Lord Chancellor dealt with cases Lord Nottingham decided that a judge exercising equity jurisdiction Strictly formulated rules of common law were predictable whereas (тогда как) The Judicature Acts of 1873—1875 established Finally equity became as formalized and rigid In the 19th century there was no reason why equity The Court of Chancery is The Court of Chancery can apply

a division of the High Court now. the basis of the court structure that we have today. both common law and equity now. equity varied with the length of the Chancellor's foot. equity became predictable and formalized. on a flexible basis. equity was unpredictable. needed its own courts. as the common law. should follow existing principles.

ARIZONA FUNNY LAWS Hunting camels is prohibited. Any misdemeanor committed while wearing a red mask is considered a felony. There is a possible 25 years in prison for cutting down a cactus. Donkeys cannot sleep in bathtubs. It is illegal to manufacture imitation cocaine. When being attacked by a criminal or burglar, you may only protect yourself with the same weapon that the other person possesses. It is unlawful to refuse a person a glass of water. It is illegal to sing in a public place while wearing a swimsuit. Cars may not be driven in reverse. Cards may not be played in the street with a Native American. A decree declares that anyone caught stealing soap must wash himself with it until it is all used up. It is illegal for men and women over the age of 18 to have less than one missing tooth visible when smiling.

Useful Words and Expressions for Speech Practice
appellate court (Court of Appeal)	апелляционный суд
to appeal	подавать апелляционную жалобу
valid	юридически действительный, имеющий силу
application	принятие (права, закона); заявление, просьба, ходатайство.
to exercise jurisdiction	осуществлять юрисдикцию
Magistrates' Court	магистратский суд
Crown Court	королевский суд / суд Короны
High Court	Верховный Суд
County Court	суд графства
court of first instance	суд первой инстанции
European Court of Human Rights	Европейский суд по правам человека
Juvenile Court	суд по делам несовершеннолетних
justice of the peace	мировой судья
to decide a case	выносить решение по делу
to have the right to trial by jury	иметь право на суд присяжных
to hear appeals	рассматривать апелляции
to have evidence	иметь улики
barrister	барристер (адвокат, имеющий право выступать в высших судах)
solicitor	солиситор, адвокат, поверенный
advocacy	деятельность адвоката (в суде)
right of audience	право выступать в суде
proceeding (s)	судебное разбирательство, рассмотрение дела в суде, производство по делу, судопроизводство
criminal proceeding	уголовное преследование
to commence proceeding (s)	инициировать начало рассмотрения дела, возбуждать судебное преследование

JOKES ABOUT LAWYERS A. A gang of robbers broke into a lawyer's club by mistake. The old legal lions gave them a fight for their life and their money. The gang was very happy to escape. «It isn't so bad», one crook noted. «We got $25 between us.» The boss screamed: «I warned you to stay clear of lawyers... we had $100 when we broke in!» B. An engineer, a physicist, and a lawyer were being interviewed for a position as chief executive officer of a large corporation. The engineer was interviewed first, and was asked a long list of questions, ending with «How much is two plus two?» The engineer excused himself, and made a series of measurements and calculations before returning to the board room and announcing, «Four.» The physicist was next interviewed, and was asked the same questions. Before answering the last question, he excused himself, made for the library, and did a great deal of research. After a consultation with the United States Bureau of Standards and many calculations, he also announced «Four.» The lawyer was interviewed last, and was asked the same questions. At the end of his interview, before answering the last question, he drew all the shades in the room, looked outside the door to see if anyone was there, checked the telephone for listening devices, and asked «How much do you want it to be?»

Task 33. Read the text below and make a list of the courts mentioned there.

THE HIERARCHY OF THE COURTS

In the English legal system some courts are bound to follow the decisions of judges in the higher courts. The following text provides an outline of the hierarchy of the courts and the ways in which judges are bound by the decisions of other courts and the ways in which judges are bound by the decisions of other judges.

The House of Lords is the highest appeal court in the English legal system. Its decisions are binding upon all other courts. Until 1966 the House of Lords was also bound by its own previous decisions. In that year the Lord Chancellor, Lord Gardiner, issued a Practice Statement which stated that «while treating former decisions of this House as normally binding» their Lordships would «depart from a previous decision when it appears right to do so».

The Court of Appeal is below the House of Lords in the hierarchy. It is bound by the decisions of the House of Lords and its decisions are binding on lower courts. It is also bound to follow its own previous decisions except when a previous decision of the Court of Appeal conflicts with a decision of the House of Lords, there are two conflicting Court of Appeal decisions when it must choose which one to follow, and a previous decision was given per incuriam (through lack of care — generally when some relevant law was not taken into consideration). These exceptions to the rule that the Court of Appeal must abide by its own previous decisions are called the rules in Young v. Bristol Aeroplane Company (1944), the case in which the rules were laid down.

T he court below the Court of Appeal is the High Court of Justice. It is bound to follow the decisions of the House of Lords and the Court of Appeal. Judges of the High Court will normally follow the decisions of fellow High Court judges but they are not absolutely bound to do so.

The court of first instance for criminal cases, the Crown Court is bound by the House of Lords and the Court of Appeal; the lowest courts in the hierarchy, the county court and the magistrates' courts are bound by the high Court, the Court of Appeal and the House of Lords. No court is bound by the decisions of these lower courts.

Since 1972 when Britain joined the European Community, the position of the European Court of Justice must also be considered. It is a court of referral in relation to EC law and not a court of appeal, although its decisions on the interpretation of EC law are binding on British courts.

Task 34. Study the table and tell about the structure of the court system in the UK.

THE COURT STRUCTURE OF HER MAJESTY'S COURTS SERVICE (HMCS)

Her Majesty's Courts Service carries out the administrative and support for the Court of Appeal, the High Court, the Crown Court, the magistrates' courts, the county courts and the Probate Service.

Источник. http://www. hmcourts-service.gov.uk/aboutus/structure/index.htm

U nit 2

U.S. COURTS

Useful Words and Expressions for Speech Practice
the judicial power/branch	судебная власть
the legislative power/branch	законодательная власть
the executive power/branch	исполнительная власть
ruling	постановление, судебное решение
to protect rights and liberties	защищать права и свободы
to apply the law	применять закон
to resolve disputes	урегулировать / разрешать споры
to enforce the laws	следить за соблюдением законов
The Founding Fathers	отцы-основатели
judicial system / judiciary system	судебная система
an independent judiciary	независимое судопроизводство
to ensure fairness and equal justice	обеспечить справедливость и равное правосудие
to promote judicial independence	обеспечить независимость судопроизводства
to draft a law	составить законопроект
to appoint for life	назначать пожизненно
to remove from office	снять с должности
continuance in office	пребывание в должности
conviction	осуждение, признание виновным
treason	измена
high treason	государственная измена
to reduce the salary of a federal judge	уменьшить заработную плату федерального судьи
to decide a case	принять решение по делу
Supreme Court	Верховный Суд
Chief Justice	Председатель (Верховного Суда США)
Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court	член Верховного Суда США
Court of Appeals	Апелляционный Суд
Circuit Court	(выездной) окружной суд
trial court of general jurisdiction	амер. суд первой инстанции общей юрисдикции
district court	(1) федеральный районный суд (федеральный суд первой инстанции в США); (2) местный суд (в ряде штатов в США)
мagistrate	магистрат (должностное лицо, осуществляющее правосудие), судья, мировой судья, полицейский судья
мagistrate court	суд магистрата, магистратский суд, мировой суд
to administer justice	отправлять правосудие
arrest warrant	ордер на арест
summons	повестка в суд
search warrant	ордер на обыск
traffic offence / traffic infraction / traffic violation	нарушение правил дорожного движения
by-law	подзаконный акт, постановление органов местной власти
misdemeanor/misdemeanour	судебно наказуемый проступок, преступление, мисдиминор (категория наименее опасных преступлений, граничащих с административными правонарушениями)
felony	преступление, фелония (категория тяжких преступлений, по степени опасности находящаяся между изменой и мисдимирором)
defendant	ответчик, обвиняемый, подсудимый, подзащитный
plaintiff	ответчик
offender	правонарушитель, преступник, обидчик
suit for damages	иск о возмещении убытков
to initiate a claim	возбудить иск

to impose a sentence / to impose a fine / to impose a judgement	вынести приговор / налагать штраф / вынести судебное решение
a criminal case	уголовное дело
a civil case / a civil claim	гражданское дело / гражданский иск
ordinance	(1) указ, статут, декрет, постановление, закон, ордонанс; (2) постановление муниципального органа (в США)

Task 1. Study the text below, making sure you fully comprehend it. Where appropriate, consult English-Russian dictionaries and/or other reference & source books on law.

THE JUDICIAL SYSTEM OF THE USA

Article III of the United States Constitution establishes the judicial branch as one of the three separate and distinct branches of the federal government. The other two are the legislative and executive branches.

The federal courts are often called the guardians of the Constitution because their rulings protect rights and liberties guaranteed by the Constitution. Through fair and impartial judgments, the federal courts interpret and apply the law to resolve disputes. The courts do not make the laws. That is the responsibility of the Congress. Nor do the courts have the power to enforce the laws. That is the role of the President and the many executive branch departments and agencies.

The Founding Fathers of the nation considered an independent federal judiciary essential to ensure fairness and equal justice for all citizens of the United States. The Constitution they drafted promotes judicial independence in two major ways. First, federal judges are appointed for life, and they can be removed from office only through impeachment and conviction by Congress of «Treason, Bribery, or other high rimes and Misdemeanors.» Second, the Constitution provides that the compensation of federal judges «shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office,« which means that neither the President nor the Congress can reduce the salary of a federal judge. These two protections help an independent judiciary to decide cases free from popular passions and political influence.

The US court system is complex: the judiciary is divided into the federal and state judiciary. Individuals fall under the jurisdiction of two different court systems, their state courts and federal courts. Each state runs its own court system, and no two are identical. There is also a system of federal courts which coexist with the state courts. People can sue in either system but the majority of cases go to the state courts.

The system of federal courts is like a pyramid. The lowest courts in the Federal Court system are the district courts where litigation begins. There are about ninety district courts in different parts of the USA and about two hundred district judges. Most criminal and civil cases are tried by district courts. The district court is the only Federal court where trials are held, juries are used, and witnesses are called.

The USA is divided into eleven judicial circuits and each of them has a Federal Court of Appeals which hears appeals from lower courts. To appeal means to take a case to a higher court. As a rule a Federal Court of Appeals sits with three judges on the bench.

The Supreme Court is the highest judicial body of the United States. It is at the top of the pyramid of the US federal courts. Above the main entrance of the Supreme Court Building in Washington we can see the following words: «Equal Justice Under Law». The Supreme Court has the right to declare unconstitutional any law passed by the Congress or any decree issued by the President. The Supreme Court consists of the Chief Justice of the USA and eight Associate Justices. They are all appointed by the President and approved by the Senate. The Federal Courts of Appeals and the Supreme Court are appellate courts. The decision of the Supreme Court is final.

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:

1. What are the branches of the federal government?

2. How does Article III of the US Constitution establish the judicial branch of the federal government?

3. Why are the federal courts the guardians of the US Constitution?

4. What are the functions of the federal courts in the USA?

5. Do the federal courts have the power to enforce the laws?

6. Did the Founding Fathers of the American nation consider an independent federal judiciary essential to ensure fairness and equal justice for all citizens of the United States?

7. How does the US Constitution promote judicial independence?

8. Can the society remove a federal judge from office?

9. Who can reduce the salary of a federal judge during his continuance in office?

10. How many court systems coexist in the USA?

11. What are the lowest courts in the US Federal Court system? What are their functions?

12. What are the functions of the Federal Court of Appeals in the USA?

13. What does it mean «to appeal»?

14. What is the highest judicial body of the United States?

15. What words can we see above the main entrance of the Supreme Court Building in Washington?

16. What are the functions of the Supreme Court?

17. Are the Federal Courts of Appeals and the Supreme Court appellate courts?

18. Is the decision of the Supreme Court final?

Task 3. Complete the sentences using the words and word combinations from the box. If necessary, consult English-Russian dictionaries.

enforce laws

separate and distinct

to ensure fairness and equal justice

the guardians of the Constitution

a federal judge

legislative, executive and judicial

rights and liberties

to resolve disputes

judicial independence

hears appeals

for life

makes laws

appellate courts

district courts

the Supreme Court

unconstitutional

Equal Justice

final

1. There are three ___ branches of the federal government: ___.

2. The federal courts are ___ because their rulings protect ___ guaranteed by the Constitution.

3. The federal courts interpret and apply the law ___.

4. The Congress ___, the President and the executive branch departments and agencies ___.

5. An independent federal judiciary is essential ___ for all citizens of the United States.

6. The US Constitution promotes ___ in two major ways.

7. Nobody can reduce the salary of ___ during his continuance in office.

8. Federal judges are appointed ___.

9. The lowest courts in the Federal Court system are the ___ where litigation begins.

10. There are eleven judicial circuits in the USA and each of them has a Federal Court of Appeals which ___ from lower courts.

11. ___ is the highest judicial body of the United States.

12. Above the main entrance of the Supreme Court Building in Washington we can see the following words: «___ under law».

13. The Supreme Court has the right to declare ___ any law of the Congress or any decree of the President.

14. The Federal Courts of Appeals and the Supreme Court are ___.

15. The decision of the Supreme Court is ___.

Task 4. Translate the following words and word combinations into English:

(1) Статья III Конституции Соединенных Штатов; судебная власть; законодательная власть; исполнительная власть; гарант Конституции; федеральный суд; защищать права и свободы; с помощью справедливых и беспристрастных решений; интерпретировать и применять законы; структуры и подразделения исполнительной власти; обеспечить справедливость и равное правосудие; обеспечить независимость судопроизводства; отцы-основатели американской нации; назначать пожизненно; снять с должности; уменьшить заработную плату; принять решение по делу; независимо от общественного мнения и политического давления.

(2) подпадать под юрисдикцию; сосуществовать; суды штатов; федеральные суды; подать иск; большинство дел; судебное разбирательство / тяжба; окружной суд; апелляционный суд; Верховный Суд; высший судебный орган; объявить неконституционным; указ президента; главный судья / председательствующий судья; рассматривать апелляции.

(3) Судебная система США имеет две параллельные системы судопроизводства: федеральную систему и судопроизводство в каждом штате. Каждый штат имеет свою собственную судебную систему, и при этом ни одна из них не похожа на другую. Граждане подпадают под юрисдикцию двух разных судебных систем: федеральных судов и судов того штата, где они проживают. Люди могут подать иск в суд любой из этих двух систем судопроизводства, но большинство дел рассматриваются в судах штатов.

Система федеральных судов подобна пирамиде. Низшая судебная инстанция в федеральной судебной системе — это районные суды, где и начинается судопроизводство. В разных частях США заседают около 90 районных судов и около 200 судей. Большинство уголовных и гражданских дел рассматриваются именно районными судами. Районный суд — это единственный федеральный суд, где дело слушается с участием суда присяжных, вызываются свидетели.

США делятся на 11 судебных округов, и в каждом из них есть федеральный апелляционный суд, который рассматривает апелляции из судов низшей инстанции. Подать апелляцию — это значит подать апелляционную жалобу в суд высшей инстанции.

Верховный Суд является высшим судебным органом США. У него есть право объявить неконституционным любой закон, принятый Конгрессом, и любой указ Президента. Верховный Суд США состоит из Председателя Суда и восьми членов. Они все назначаются Президентом, и их кандидатуры должны быть одобрены Сенатом. Решение Верховного Суда является окончательным.

FROM A LITTLE BOOK CALLED «DISORDER IN THE COURT» These are things people actually said in court, word by word
Q: What is your date of birth? A: July 15. Q: What year? A: Every year. Q: How old is your son? A: 35 or 38, I can't remember. Q: How long has he lived with you? A: 45 years. Q: Now doctor, isn't it true that when a person dies in his sleep, he doesn't know about it until the next morning?	Q: Did he kill you? Q: You were there until the time you left, is that true? Q: How many times have you committed suicide? Q: How was your first marriage terminated? A: By death. Q: And by whose death was it terminated?

T ask 5. Study the text below, making sure you fully comprehend it. Where appropriate, consult English-Russian dictionaries and/or other reference & source books on law.

The US Constitution

T he Constitution of the United States of America is the supreme law of the United States. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority. It provides the framework for the organization of the United States Government. The document defines the three main branches of the government: The legislative branch with a bicameral Congress, an executive branch led by the President, and a judicial branch headed by the Supreme Court. Besides providing for the organization of these branches, the Constitution carefully outlines which powers each branch may exercise. It also reserves numerous rights for the individual states, thereby establishing the United States' federal system of government. It is the shortest and oldest written constitution of any major sovereign state.

The United States Constitution was adopted on September 17, 1787, by the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and later ratified by conventions in each U.S. state in the name of «The People»; it has since been amended twenty-seven times, the first ten amendments being known as the Bill of Rights. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union³ was actually the first constitution of the United States of America. The U.S. Constitution replaced the Articles of Confederation as the governing document for the United States after being ratified by nine states. The Constitution has a central place in United States law and political culture.

Historical influences

S everal of the ideas in the Constitution were new, and a large number of ideas were drawn from the literature of Republicanism in the United States, from the experiences of the 13 states, and from the British experience with mixed government.

The most important influence from the European continent was from Montesquieu, who emphasized the need to have balanced forces pushing against each other to prevent tyranny. (This in itself reflects the influence of Polybius' 2nd century BC treatise on the checks and balances of the constitution of the Roman Republic). John Locke is known to have been a major influence, and the due process clause of the United States Constitution was partly based on common law stretching back to the Magna Carta of 1215.

Influences on the Bill of Rights

The United States Bill of Rights consists of the ten amendments added to the Constitution in 1791, as supporters of the constitution had promised critics during the debates of 1788. The English Bill of Rights (1689) was an inspiration for the American Bill of Rights. For example, both require jury trials, contain a right to keep and bear arms, and prohibit excessive bail as well as «cruel and unusual punishments». Many liberties protected by state constitutions were incorporated into the United States Bill of Rights.

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:

1. What does the US Constitution provide for?

2. What documents and ideas influenced the US Constitution?

3. What is US Bill of Rights? Why was the Bill adopted?

4. What do you know about J. Lock's and Montesquieu's theories?

Task 6. Find the equivalents in the text:

• фундамент и источник права

• возглавляемый Верховным Судом

• обеспечивать организацию этих ветвей

• какие полномочия каждая ветвь может осуществлять

• определить три главные ветви власти (законодательную, исполнительную, судебную)

• четко очертить (определить) властные полномочия каждой ветви

• двухпалатный конгресс

• сохранять права отдельных штатов

• система сдержек и противовесов конституции

• вдохновение

• требовать суда присяжных

• запрещать непомерный залог

• свободы, защищенные конституциями штатов

Interesting facts about the us Constitution There are several clerical errors in the original text of the Constitution. The most known of them is the spelling of the State of Pennsylvania in the list of the delegates, who had signed the Constitution, with one «n» — «Pensylvania». In addition to that, some words in the Constitutions are written according to the rules of British English, which differ from the American one; by then the American spelling standards haven't been established yet. The text of the US Constitution doesn't specify who has the right to vote. As a result, in early days of the Union only white men who owned property could take part in the elections. The African Americans weren't considered as citizens, and women were also excluded from voting. Native Americans couldn't vote up until 1924. Out of forty-two delegates who were present at the Convention, thirty-nine signed the Constitution. The delegates from Virginia and Massachusetts refused to sign the document partly because it didn't have the bill of rights. When it was time to ratify the Constitution by the states, the absence of the bill of rights became the main stumbling block. Benjamin Franklin was the oldest man to sign the Constitution. He was 81 at the moment of signing of the document. Although Benjamin Franklin's mind was still sharp, his body wouldn't obey him. He could hardly walk. He would be brought in the hall of the council in the palanquin held by four inmates from the Walnut Street Prison in Philadelphia. When done, he had tears rolling down his cheeks. Jonathan Dayton, 26, from New Jersey, was the youngest one. The first national Thanksgiving Day was celebrated on November 26, 1789. It took place upon the decision of Congress and President George Washington. The desire to «thank» for the new Constitution became the reason behind the holiday. Initially, the founders of the document faced the question of how to address the President. The Senate offered the title «His Highness, the President of the United States, and Protector of their Liberties». But eventually, the House of Representatives and the Senate agreed on the «President of the United States». The word «democracy» never shows in the text of the Constitution.

The Constitutional Council proposed to limit the country's regular army to 5,000 troops. Sarcastically, George Washington responded that he would certainly agree, provided that the same section of the document would also stipulate that the invader armies can't attack with more than 3,000 soldiers. In 1876, an offer was introduced to amend the Constitution and abolish the Senate. In 1893, they came up with an amendment to renaming the USA into the United States of Earth.

Task 7. (a) Study the following words and word combinations:

judicial	судебный, судейский
judicially	в судебном порядке
judiciary	(1) судебный, судейский; (2) суд, судебная власть; (3) судоустройство
judicature	(1) отправление правосудия; юрисдикция; (2) судоустройство; система судебных органов; суд; (3) лица судебной профессии
justice	(1) справедливость; (2) правосудие, юстиция; (3) судья
to administer justice	отправлять правосудие
process	(1) приказ суда; особ. приказ о вызове в суд; (2) процедура, порядок, производство дел; судопроизводство; процессуальные нормы; процесс; (3) копия производства по делу (направляемая в вышестоящую инстанцию)
process of the court	(1) судебный приказ; (2) судопроизводство; (3) протокол судебного производства (направляемый в вышестоящую судебную инстанцию)
forged process	(1) фальсифицированный судебный процесс; (2) фальсифицированный протокол судебного процесса
a summons	повестка в суд
to serve a witness with a summons / to summon a witness	вызывать свидетеля повесткой в суд
subpoena	повестка в суд (под страхом наказания или штрафа в случае неявки)
deputy	(1) депутат; представитель; (2) заместитель, помощник

(b) Match the English expressions with their Russian equivalents in the table:

judicial system / judiciary system	судебный орган
judicial abuse	судебный округ
judicial administration	судебная система
judicial body	секретарь; сотрудник канцелярии суда; судебный клерк
judicial award	применение (норм права, закона) в судебном порядке
judicial branch	судебное право
judicial circuit	судебное злоупотребление
judicial clerk	судопроизводство; судебный процесс
judicial law	судебная власть
judicial proceeding (s)	судебное решение
judicial sitting	приказы суда
judicial writs	обвиняемый в судебном порядке
judicially charged	юридический комитет (с палате представителей и в сенате США)
(14) judicially appointed expert	судебное заседание
(15) judiciary committee	эксперт по назначению суда

(c) Match the English expressions with their Russian equivalents in the table:

justice in court	отправлять правосудие
justice of the peace	судья в судебном заседании
to administer justice	несправедливость
breach of justice	предавать суду; отдавать в руки правосудия
to bring to justice	уголовная юстиция; правосудие по уголовным делам
chief justice	мировой судья
criminal justice	укрываться от правосудия
to flee from justice	председательствующий судья
deputy attorney	помощник судьи
deputy foreman	представитель с ограниченными полномочиями
deputy judge	заместитель старшины присяжных
special deputy	помощник адвоката

(d) Match the English expressions with their Russian equivalents in the table:

to process a case	возбуждать обвинение
to process a charge	протоколы обвинения
to process documents	судебный приказ; судопроизводство
process of prosecution	исполнительный приказ суда
legal process	начать дело; преследовать в судебном порядке
final process	оформлять документы
to serve a process	судебный приказ, не имеющий юридической силы
to violate due process rights	вручать судебный приказ
void process	вызывать свидетеля повесткой в суд
to serve a witness with a summons	нарушать права на соблюдение должной процедуры

(e) Complete the sentences using the word combinations from the second column:

To take judicial proceedings against smb means	to separate from a husband or wife, granted by a judge, usually with arrangements favourable to the wronged person concerning money or children.
A judicial separation is the right	a legal but unjust sentence of death.
A judicial murder is	a system of law courts in a country.
A judiciary system is	to bring a law case against him.
Judicature is	the full title of the English Courts of Justice.
The Supreme Court of Judicature is	a critical impartial person.
A man with a judicial mind is	an ambiguous sentence or article in the law.
A judiciary joker is	administration of justice, on the one hand, and the body of judges, on the other hand.
Process is	the sheriff's officer who delivers writs.
A summons is	summons or writ ordering a person to appear in a law court.
A process-server is	to undergo a period of imprisonment.
To serve a sentence means	an order to appear before a judge or magistrate.

(f) Complete the sentences using the words and word combinations from the box. If necessary, consult English-Russian dictionaries.

summons judicial administer (2) justified

to serve a summons justice served Justice

1. The _______ was served by a bailiff.

2. Each ______ district is served by a chief magistrate and a number of magistrates.

3. He has already _______ three years of his sentence.

4. ________ is to deliver a summons to the person named in it.

5. The criminal was finally brought to ________.

6. The Department of ______ is the executive department, headed by the Attorney General, supervising internal security, immigration, naturalization, etc.

7. The Prime Minister ______ the action of the Government.

8. To ______ the law means to apply the law.

9. Don't ______ punishment to this man. He is innocent.

T ask 8. Look through the laws and by-laws below and think it over why they haven't been cancelled yet:

… In Texas, USA, it is illegal to swear near a corpse.

… In the town of New Ark, New Jersey, USA, it is illegal to buy ice-cream after 6 p.m. without written permission from your doctor.

… There is a law in Michigan, USA, which says that the husband is the owner of his wife's hair.

… In Kentucky, USA, it is illegal to carry ice-cream in the back pocket of your trousers.

… In some towns of Colorado, USA, it is illegal for a man to kiss a sleeping woman. In some towns of Nevada, USA, it is illegal for men with moustache to kiss women.

… In the town of Providence, Rhode Island, it is illegal for shop owners to sell tooth-paste and tooth brushes to the same buyer on Sundays.

… According to the laws of several states in the USA women can divorce their husbands if they prove that the men snore too loudly at night.

… In the town of Zion, Illinois, it is illegal to give cigars to pets.

… In Saint Louis, Missouri, a fireman has no right to save a woman if she is wearing a night-gown.

… In Baltimore, Maryland, it is illegal to bring a lion to the cinema.

…In Pennsylvania there is a law which says that a man has no right to buy alcoholic drinks without written permission of his wife.

Notes:

it is illegal — это незаконно

to swear — (1) (зд.) ругаться, богохульствовать; (2) клясться

a corpse — труп

written permission — письменное разрешение

Task 9. Replace the underlined words and word combinations with the words from the box. If necessary, consult English-Russian dictionaries and/or other reference & source books on law.

resolved (4) discharged (2) discharge (3) offence/offense

imposed traffic violations offended charged with

1. He decided that nothing should hold him back.

2. He separated the problem into its elements.

3. The accused man was found not guilty and was allowed to leave.

4. He decided to succeed.

5. The House of Commons converted itself into a committee.

6. He is faithful in the performance of his duties.

7. The members of the jury were set free from their duties.

8. How long will the unloading of the cargo take?

9. Will $100 be enough for the performance of your liabilities?

10. He was charged with a serious crime against the law.

11. He committed an offence against good manners, traditions and the law.

12. If a person is convicted of certain traffic offenses, the Virginia Department of Motor Vehicles will assess points against the person's driver's license. This is in addition to any sentence passed by the judge.

Task 10. Match the legal terms on the left with their definitions on the right:

A misdemeanor is	who brings an action at law.
A by-law/bye-law is	who has committed certain actions which, if committed by adults, would not be considered criminal offenses — such as truancy or habitually running away from home.
A felony is	a legal offence less serious than a felony. It is any charge which carries a penalty of no more than one year in jail or a fine of up to $2,500, or both.
A felon is a person	under 18.
A defendant is a person	who offends by breaking the law.
A plaintiff is a person	a law or regulation made by a local, rather than a central, authority.
An offender is a person	found guilty for the first time and not usually treated severely.
First offenders are criminals	who has often been found guilty.
An old offender is a person	against whom a legal action is brought.
A juvenile is any person	who has committed an act which would be a crime if committed by an adult.
A delinquent is a juvenile	guilty of a felony.
A «child in need of services» (CHINS) is a juvenile	the improper care or violent handling of juveniles.
Child abuse and neglect involves	a major serious crime, e.g. murder, armed robbery, arson. It is any charge which may be punishable by more than one year in jail.

T ask 11. Look through the laws and by-laws below and comment on the stupidest one:

…… In Sarasota it is illegal to sing in a public place if you are wearing a swimming costume.

… In Indiana it is illegal to swim in ponds, lakes and rivers in winter.

… There is a law in Iowa which says that kisses may last not more than five minutes.

… In Oklahoma, USA, the judge may sentence you to prison if you tease a dog.

… In Alaska it is illegal to throw a living deer out of a flying plane.

… In Connecticut it is illegal to cross the street on your hands.

… In Florida there is a law which forbids unmarried women to jump with a parachute on Sundays otherwise the police may arrest them, fine them or the judge may send them to prison.

… In Texas, USA, before 1932 an escape from prison was not considered a crime if the prisoner escaped without using fire arms.

… If you leave an elephant on the parking lot in Florida you must pay for the parking as if it were a car.

… In Indiana it is illegal to go to the cinema or to the theatre or use public transport if you ate garlic less than four hours before that.

Note:

parking lot — стоянка, место для парковки

T ask 12. Match the English expressions with their Russian equivalents in the tables:

(a)

trial court of general jurisdiction	осуществлять юрисдикцию
to exercise jurisdiction	апелляционная юрисдикция (право вышестоящего суда пересмотреть приговор или решение нижестоящего суда)
to extend the jurisdiction over smth	параллельная (совпадающая) юрисдикция
original jurisdiction	исправительное учреждение тюремного типа
appellate jurisdiction	обвинительный акт большого следственного жюри
civil claim	процедура сертификации (обращение нижестоящего суда в вышестоящий за справкой по сложному юридическому вопросу в связи с рассматриваемым делом)
civil case	бракоразводный процесс
concurrent jurisdiction	дела об усыновлении / удочерении
penitentiary	юрисдикция суда первой инстанции / рассмотрение дел по первой инстанции
indictment	суд первой инстанции общей юрисдикции
indictment of grand jury	завещание
certification	имущественные споры
divorce proceedings	обвинительный акт, предъявление обвинения
will	гражданское дело
property disputes	распространить юрисдикцию на что-либо
adoption proceedings	гражданский иск

(b)

to convene a grand jury	срок полномочий суда данного состава
term of appeal	срок пребывания в должности, срок полномочий
term of imprisonment	срок полномочий состава большого жюри
term of office	предстать перед судом
term of punishment	созвать большое следственное жюри
term of the court	обвинительный акт; проект обвинительного акта
term of the grand jury	должностное преступление правительственных чиновников
term of the jury	срок наказания (по закону)
to stand trial	апелляционный суд (в ряде штатов США промежуточная инстанция между судами первой инстанции и верховным судом штата)
bill of indictment	просьба об апелляции; апелляционная жалоба
special jury	срок правомочий состава присяжных
malfeasance of governmental officials	срок подачи апелляции
Court of Appeals / Appellate Court	специальный состав присяжных, специальное жюри (из числа лиц, имеющих образование и положение в обществе, для разбора особых категорий сложных дел)
appeal from a decision of the court	срок тюремного заключения
petition for appeal	апелляционная жалоба на решение суда

(c)

writ of mandamus	заключение в тюрьму; лишение свободы; взятие под стражу; водворение в тюремную камеру или карцер
writ of prohibition	административный орган; правительственное учреждение
writ of habeas corpus	лат. судебный приказ должностному лицу о выполнении требования истца
incarceration / imprisonment	потерпевшая ущерб сторона; сторона, чьи интересы нарушены
administrative agency	приказ о запрещении производства по делу, запретительный судебный приказ (издается вышестоящим судом в целях исключения юрисдикции нижестоящей инстанции)
aggrieved party	состав суда первой инстанции
panel of jurors	лат. судебный приказ о защите неприкосновенности личности от произвольного ареста или судебный приказ о доставлении в суд лица, содержащегося под стражей, для выяснения правомерности содержания его под стражей
panel of trial judges	лишение звания адвоката / лишение права адвокатской деятельности
disbarment of an attorney	список присяжных
the Supreme Court of Virginia	председатель Верховного Суда
The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court	разрешение споров
dispute resolution	финансовая система / налоговая система
fiscal system	отдел кадров
personnel department	Верховный Суд Виржинии

(d)

to file a lawsuit / an action	представить обвинительный акт, подшить обвинительный акт к делу
to file a case	заявить об обвинении, выдвинуть обвинение
to file a charge	подать апелляционную жалобу
to file an appeal	подать иск
to file an indictment	подшить дело, подать иск

T ask 13. Match the legal terms on the left with their definitions on the right:

Equity suits are	a period during which a Court holds session.
Term of the court is	prison for persons guilty of serious crimes, esp. one in which reform of the prisoners is the main aim.
Penitentiary is	a written order issued in the name of a ruler or smb in authority to an official to do or not to do smth.
A writ is	a party to a lawsuit feeling that it has been treated unjustly.
Incarceration means	claims seeking a judgment for something other than money.
An aggrieved party is	law dealing with private rights of citizens, not with crime.
Civil law is	the Supreme Court of Virginia may order the holder of an office to perform his duty.
A writ of habeas corpus is	the Supreme Court of Virginia may order an action stopped in a lower court.
Cases of habeas corpus are cases when	imprisonment.
Cases of mandamus are cases when	the Supreme Court of Virginia may order one holding custody to produce the detained person before the Court for the purpose of determining whether such custody is proper.
Cases of prohibition are cases when	an order requiring a person to be brought before a judge or into court, esp. to investigate the right of the law to keep him in prison.

COLORADO FUNNY LAWS Car dealers may not show cars on a Sunday. No liquor may be sold on Sundays or election days. To own a dog over three months of age, one must obtain a license. Establishments which sell alcohol must have enough lighting to read text inside them. Catapults may not be fired at buildings. It is legal to challenge a police officer, but only until he or she asks you to stop. It is permissible to wear a holstered six-gun within city limits, except on Sunday, Election Day, or holidays. It is illegal to bring your horse or pack mule above the ground floor of any building. It is unlawful to lend your vacuum cleaner to your next-door neighbor. You may not drive a black car on Sundays. Residents may not own chickens, but may own up to three turkeys. It is illegal to let a dandelion grow within the city limits.

Unit 3

THE JURY

T ask 1. Study the text below, making sure you fully comprehend it. Where appropriate, consult English-Russian dictionaries and/or other reference & source books on law.

J URY

Jury is a body of people who are chosen to decide the truth of factual evidence in an action or legal proceeding and, on instruction of the court, to apply the law to the facts. Such a body is called a petit jury or trial jury. Traditionally, a trial jury consists of 12 people, often with one or two alternates.

From the History of Jury

The exact origin of the jury system is not known; various writers have attributed it to different European peoples who at an early period developed different methods of trial. It seems probable that the jury in England was derived directly from the Norman institution of recognition by sworn inquest, whereby 12 knights were chosen to serve as recognitors.

As early as the 12th century, it had become customary for suitors in certain cases affecting the title to real estate to apply to the King's Court for the summoning of recognitors to ascertain, either from their own knowledge or on inquiry from others, the truth of the matter at issue; the verdict of the court, if unanimous, was accepted as conclusive. It was natural that other questions of fact arising in the King's Court should be disposed of in a similar manner, and the gradual transformation of the recognitors into the jury followed as a matter of course. Originally, the jury members were not only judges of fact, but were also witnesses who were selected because of their knowledge of the customs and the people of the locality, and possibly of the suitors themselves. In the early 15th century, however, the judges of the courts of common law restricted the jury to the performance of its function as a judge of fact based on the evidence submitted in an action. This is the single function of the jury in modern practice.

Selection of a Jury in the US

In the US the selection of a jury starts when a large group of citizens is called to appear for jury duty at each term of court. They are selected according to constitutional provisions. Each state has its own qualifications for those who may serve on a jury. In general, all jurors must be US citizens, local residents, of approved integrity, and of reasonable intelligence. The group of jurors called at any one time is known as a panel. Both the state and federal courts have independent lists of jurors that are made up under the direction of officials known as commissioners of jurors. Jurors are paid, as provided by statute, for time spent serving on jury duty.

At a trial the selection of the jury is made subject to the direction of the presiding judge. The names of the prospective jurors are drawn by lot by the clerk of the court. Both the defense and the prosecution may examine the jurors to ascertain whether cause for challenge in any particular case exists—that is, whether circumstances exist that might improperly influence a juror's decisions, such as bias or self-interest. The parties to the action or their attorneys may then exercise their right to eliminate undesirable members from the jury by means of challenge.

Functions of a Jury

After a satisfactory jury has been drawn, the jury is sworn, and the trial proceeds. In general, during the progress of a trial, all questions of law are determined by the court and questions of fact by the jury.

After all the evidence has been presented, the two counsels, first for the defendant and then for the plaintiff or prosecution, «sum up,« that is, each addresses the jury, reviewing the evidence in the case and commenting on it in a manner favorable to that counsel's side of the case. The judge then makes a charge to the jury. The charge is a statement of the rules of law applicable to the evidence in that particular case. It is given in order to aid the jury in rendering a correct verdict. The jury then retires from the courtroom to begin deliberations. These deliberations continue until an agreement as to the verdict is reached, or until the presiding judge deems that the jury cannot reach an agreement. The latter case is known as a hung jury. In the event that no agreement is reached, a new trial may be called. All members of a jury must agree on a verdict, which in a civil trial may be «for the plaintiff» or «for the defendant,« and in a criminal trial «guilty» or «not guilty.» (In some states, however, the verdict in a civil trial need not be unanimous.) In a civil trial the jury is then empowered to set the amount of any damages. The verdict of a jury is decisive and cannot be disturbed unless rendered contrary to law or against the weight of evidence. In such a case the verdict may be set aside, either by the presiding judge or later on appeal.

Task 2. Find the appropriate definitions:

ascertain	отвод (присяжным, свидетелю), давать отвод
alternate juror	устанавливать; определять; выяснять; удостоверять
summon	коллегия присяжных равного с подсудимым социального статуса
recognitor	(1) созывать; (2) вызывать
challenge	заместитель присяжного
jury of peers (jury of one's peers)	(1) присяжный; (2) лицо, дающее обязательство в суде
inquest	истец
suitors	расследование, дознание, следствие
panel	единодушный, единогласный
unanimous	список присяжных заседателей
hung jury	явиться для заседания суда присяжных
to disturb the verdict	изолировать
deliberation	коллегия присяжных, не пришедших к единому мнению
sequester	поставить вопрос о пересмотре вердикта
report of jury service	совещание, обсуждение

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:

1. What is a jury?

2. What is known about the origin of a jury?

3. What was the procedure of affecting the title to real estate in XII century?

4. Who was a predecessor of a juror?

5. How the performance of jury's function was changed in the early 15th century?

6. What do you know about the selection of a jury in the US?

7. How does a jury work?

Task 3. True or false (correct if the statement is false)?

1. Petit jury is a jury of 12 persons empanelled to determine the facts of a case and decide the issue pursuant to the direction of the court on points of law.

2. The jury derived from Norman institution of recognition by sworn witnesses.

3. In the early 15th century the jury members were not only judges of fact, but also witnesses or possibly the suitors themselves.

4. Panel is a list of persons summoned for jury service.

5. Jurors are not paid for time spent serving on jury duty.

6. Only the judge has the right to challenge a juror in case of his bias or self-interest.

7. All questions of law are determined by the jury.

8. After all the evidence has been presented the judge «sums up,« reviewing the evidence in the case in order to aid the jury in rendering a correct verdict.

9. Hung jury is a trial jury duly selected to make a decision in a criminal case regarding a defendant's guilt or innocence, but who are unable to reach a verdict due to a complete division in opinion.

10. The verdict of a jury is decisive and cannot be disturbed.

T ask 4. Study the text below, making sure you fully comprehend it. Where appropriate, consult English-Russian dictionaries and/or other reference & source books on law.

From the Juror's Handbook (New York Court System)