- •Передмова
- •Contents:
- •I. Language and Extralinguistic World
- •II. Language as a Means of Communication
- •III. Translation Definitions
- •IV. Translation Varieties
- •It is possible to mark out the following problems of translation:
- •It is acceptable to define several essential measures that are accomplished by using the consecutive translation:
- •In comparison with the synchronous translation several advantages of the consecutive translation can be outlined:
- •In practice there are three varieties of simultaneous translation, that are related to to different types of translation:
- •In comparison with the consecutive translation such the advantages of the simultaneous translation can be named:
- •V. Basic Theories of Translation
- •VI. Stylization in the Process of Translation
- •VII. Stylistic Devices of Translation
- •The name of people is substituted by the name of a city or country:
- •VIII. Lexical Devices of Translation
- •Word-building:
- •Borrowings from the other languages.
- •Substitution that is dictated by social rules and substitution by Phraseological units.
- •IX. Transformations in translation
- •I.1. Transpositions.
- •I.2. Replacements.
- •II.1. Specification.
- •II.2. Generalization.
- •II.3. The method of lexical addition.
- •II.4. The method of omission.
- •II.5. The method of semantic development.
- •II.6. The method of integral transformation.
- •II.7. The method of compensation.
- •X. Translation of Phraseological Units
- •From Greek mythology:
- •4. From the contemporary literary or historical source relating to different languages (mainly to French, Spanish, Danish, German, Italian, Arabic):
- •XII. Translation of Proverbs and Sayings
- •XIII. Translation of Nationally Biased Lexicon
- •In the plane of one language:
- •In the plane of two languages:
- •1) On the character of text.
- •2) On importance of the nationally biased lexicon in a context.
- •3) On the character of the nationally biased lexicon.
- •4) On the source language or the target one.
- •5) On a reader of translation.
- •XIV. Literary Translation
- •XV. Translation of Poetry
- •Whether ‘tis nobler in the mind to suffer
- •W. Shakespeare «Sonnet lxvi».
- •Я кличу смерть – дивитися набридло
- •Я кличу смерть, нестерпне вже буття,
- •Озимандіас
- •Озимандія
- •Озимандія
- •Bibliography:
the name of content is substituted by the name of the vessel:
I ate three dishes
Я з’їв три тарілки
I drank two cups
Я випив дві чашки
the name of the thing is substituted by the name of material from which it is made:
Bohemian glass
Богемське скло
Porcelain and Bronze on the table
Фарфор і бронза на столі
the name of work is substituted by author’s name:
I read Shevchenko
Я читав Шевченка
I am reading Shakespeare
Я читаю Шекспіра
The name of people is substituted by the name of a city or country:
Ukraine celebrates the holiday
Україна святкує
Kharkiv enjoys festival
Харків проводить фестиваль
the abstract is substituted by the concrete:
The authorities were greeted |
Представників влади привітали |
The distance, event, notion, logic etc. relations between different categories that belong to the reality and its reflection in a human mind fixed by the meanings of words can serve the basis of metonymy. It can be relations between objects, actions, processes, phenomena, social institutes and events, place, time etc. When translating a metonymy it is of great importance to take into account its using in a context, its extralinguistic hidden motive, if it is present, otherwise a metonymy will be distorted and the whole work will lose its previous aspect at the same time.
3. Synecdoche means substitution of a whole by some of its parts or vice versa |
Synecdoche is closely related to a metonymy and is considered to be a subclass of it. It is more distantly related to other figures of speech, such as a metaphor. For example:
The hall applauded |
Зал аплодував |
The audience rejoiced |
Публіка тріумфувала |
More rigorously, a metonymy and synecdoche may be considered as sub-species of a metaphor, intending it as a type of conceptual substitution. Synecdoche is frequently used to emphasize an important aspect of a fictional character, especially in the poetry.
4. Epithet is a descriptive word or phrase accompanying or occurring in place of the name of a person or thing, which has become a fixed formula. |
Epithet is one of basic stylistic devices of the poetry that is designed to underline the characteristics, determining quality of a definite object or phenomenon and to enrich semantic fields in which they are used by a new emotional or semantic nuance. For example:
Golden heart |
Золоте серце |
Faded dreams |
Згаслі мрії |
Forgotten grieves |
Забуті печалі |
The adjectives are mainly used as epithets by transferring their indirect lexical meanings to the direct and the basic ones that distinguish them from attributes. In linguistics, an epithet can only be a metaphor. Epithets are sometimes attached to a person’s name. An epithet is especially recognizable when its function is largely decorative.
5. Simile means resemblance of a subject or phenomenon with another one, when both compared elements are being mentioned. |
A simile is a figure of speech comparing two unlike things, often introduced with the word «like» or «as».
As beautiful as a flower |
Гарна, як квітка |
As pale as a sheet |
Білий, як полотно |
Similes are widely used in literature for their expressiveness as a figure of speech. Simile’s mobile syntactic structure and expansion of time and distance aspects make it distinguishable from a metaphor where adverbial modifier of time and place are inadmissible that is used as predicates in the sentence.
6. Hyperbola means intensifying (exaggeration) one certain feature of an object. |
Hyperbola is used for intensifying expressiveness and underlining the thought told.
I was scared to death |
Я був наляканий до смерті |
I have told you hundred times |
Я казав тобі сотню разів |
We have not seen each other for ages |
Ми не бачилися сто років |
Hyperbola is frequently connected with the other stylistic devices, giving them a corresponding colouring, such as hyperbolical similes, metaphors etc.
7. Litota means underestimation of a certain feature of an object.
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Litota contains the literary underestimation of a quantity, strength or meaning of a described subject or phenomenon.
We inched our way home |
Ми поволі поверталися додому |
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8. Periphrasis means substitution of the name of a given word by the descriptive construction or phrase or it is a device by which a grammatical category or relationship is expressed by a free morpheme (typically one or more function words modifying a content word). |
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Gas – Газ |
Blue fuel – Блакитне паливо |
Oil – Нафта |
Black gold – Чорне золото, вугілля, нафта |
The USA – США |
The land of opportunities – Країна великих можливостей, США |
Moon – Місяць |
Night light – Нічне світло, Місяць |
A Lion – Лев |
King of beasts – Цар звірів, Лев |
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Periphrasis is an indirect mention of an object by describing but not naming it.
9. Oxymoron means а phrase which unite two opposite words to show discrepancy of the things, which are described, or it is a figure of speech that combines two contradictory terms. |
Pleasant trouble |
Приємні клопоти |
Cruel kindness |
Жорстока доброта |
Boastfully modest |
Жахлива скромність |
Dry rain |
Сухий дощ |
Ice smile |
Льодяна посмішка |
Sweet sorrow |
Солодка печаль |
Serious Joke |
Серйозний жарт |
Silent Scream |
Мовчазний крик |
O heavy lightness! Serious vanity! Mis-shapen chaos of well-seeming forms! Feather of lead, bright smoke, cold fire, sick health! (Shakespeare’s «Romeo and Juliet») |
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Oxymoron is a stylistic device close to a metaphor and hyperbola by its essence. The peculiarity of oxymoron is characterized by using combinations of contrasting, contrary meaning words that results in appearing new semantic quality and expressive effects. Interestingly, oxymoron is not a senseless combination of unconnected words that gives only a complete objection. It can really create new notions. For example, the phrase «hot ice» used in the modern culture, as an expression of sport meaning will probably mean that «hot fight» for victory takes place. Thus, the question is not about «ice» as such but about high competitive spirit. It is an example of a new sense, a new notion that appeared from the use of oxymoron.
10. Irony means a language phrase consisting of words, which have meaning opposite to their direct meaning with derisive and critical relation of an author to an object described or it is a literary or rhetorical device, in which there is an incongruity or discordance between what one says or does and what one means or what is generally understood. |
As clear as mud |
Чистий як сажа |
Great idea! |
Чудова ідея! |
I hear they do fine work |
Я чув вони добре попрацювали |
Even if I told the truth, nobody would believe me |
Навіть якщо я скажу правду, мені ніхто не повірить |
The modern theories of rhetoric distinguish between three types of irony: verbal, dramatic and situational.
Verbal irony is a non-correspondence of expression and intention or, in the other words, when a speaker says one thing but means another, or when a literal meaning is contrary to its effect intended. Sarcasm is an example of this.
Dramatic irony is a non-correspondence of expression and awareness or when words and actions possess a significance that the listener or audience understands, but the speaker or character does not.
Situational irony is a non-correspondence of intention and result or when the result of an action is contrary to the desired or expected effect.
II. Syntactic devices of literary expressiveness: |
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Ye who love the haunts of Nature, Love the sunshine of the meadow, Love the shadow of the forest, Love the wind among the branches… (H.W. Longfellow «The Song of Hiawatha») |
What the hammer? what the chain? In what furnace was thy brain? What the anvil? what dread grasp Dare its deadly terrors clasp? (W. Blake «The Tiger») |
It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair… (Ch. Dickens «A Tale of Two Cities») |
2. Epithora means repetition of the finishing element of the sentence or repetition of the same word or words at the end of phrases, clauses or sentences. |
…The woods are lovely, dark and deep. But I have promises to keep, And miles to go before I sleep, And miles to go before I sleep. (Robert Frost «Stopping by Woods on a snowy Evening») |
…And gentle winds and waters near, Make music to the lovely ear. Each flower the dews have lightly wet, And in the sky the stars are met, And on the wave is deeper blue, And on the leaf a browner hue, And in the heaven that clear obscure, So softly dark, and darkly pure, Which follows the decline of day, As twilight melts beneath the moon away. (G.G. Byron «Twilight») |
3. Tautology means repetition of a word of the same root for emphasizing or it is an unnecessary or unessential repetition of a meaning, using different and dissimilar words that effectively say the same thing twice. |
He sat alone by himself |
Він сидів на одинці |
Forward planning |
Перспективне планування |
Suddenly, without warning |
Несподівано, без попередження |
I can see it with my own eyes |
Я можу побачити все на власні очі |
I made it with my own hands |
Я зробив це своїми руками |
A repetition of а meaning may be intended to amplify or emphasize a certain aspect of the thing discussed. It is a way of formulating a description as an explanation when the real reason for the phenomena cannot be independently derived.
4. Repetition means using one and the same language element in order to emphasize its meaning or is it just the simple repetition of a word, within a sentence or a poetical line, with no particular placement of the words. |
…Keeping time, time, time In a sort of Runic rhyme, To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells From the bells, bells, bells, bells, Bells, bells, bells, From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells. (E.A. «Poe The Bells») |
Sweet and low, sweet and low, Wind of the western sea, Low, low, breathe and blow, Wind of the western sea! (A. Tennyson «Song») |
5. Gradation means repetition of synonym words, when each next of them intensify the meaning of the previous one. |
Come, saw and won |
Прийшов, побачив, переміг |
Smile, laugh, giggle |
Посміхатися, сміятися, реготати |
6. Inversion means replacement or re-arrangement of words, retreating from the ordinary order in the sentence. |
«Only then have I made my mind to go there» |
Othello says: «Rude am I in my speech», addressing to the noble audience |
Inversion is one of the stylistic devices that means unusual word-order in a sentence with obvious violation of syntactic construction for the sake of the emotional-semantic expressiveness of the definite utterance.
Inversion is used mainly in lyric poetry.
7. Preterition means broken sentence to hint at a thought unfinished. |
– «Still looking for your boot?» – «Yes, sir, and mean to find it». – «But surely, you said that it was a new brown boot?» – «So it was, sir. And now it’s an old black one». – «What! you don’t mean to say - ?» – «That’s just what I do mean to say». (A. Conan Doyle «The Hound of the Baskervilles»)
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– Все ще розшукуєте свою пропажу? – Так, розшукую и не заспокоюсь, доки не знайду. – Але, мені здається, ви говорили про новий світло-коричньовий черевик? – Так, сер. А тепер та ж історія з чорним. – Як! Невже ви кинулись і…? – Саме так! Переклад: Камалія Готті |
8. Ellipsis means omission of a word or word-combination in the sentence or, in the other words, it is a mark or series of marks that usually indicate an intentional omission of a word or a phrase from the source language text. |
See you tomorrow |
Побачимося (з тобою) завтра |
Have a good time |
(Бажаю) Приємно провести час |
9. Rhetorical exclamation means a question that you ask as a way of making a statement, without expecting an answer. |
Don’t you care what I do? |
Хіба тобі небайдуже, що я роблю? |
Do you think I understand nothing? |
Гадаєш, я нічого не розумію? |
10. Antithesis means intended emphasizing and matching two opposite notions. |
Ice and fire |
Лід і полум’я |
Love and selfishness |
Любов і егоїзм |
11. Refrain means repetition a part of the text from time to time. As a syntactic device of the literary expressiveness refrain is mostly used in songs. |
III. Phonetic devices of literary expressiveness: |
1. Assonance means similarity in the vowel sounds of words that are close together in a poem or it is a refrain of vowel sounds to create internal rhyming within phrases or sentences. |
Hear the mellow wedding bells (Edgar Allan Poe «The Bells») |
If you can bear to hear the truth you’ve spoken. (Rudyard Kipling «If…») |
My soul is dark – Oh! Quickly string The harp I yet can brook to hear; And let thy gentle fingers fling Its melting murmurs o’er mine ear. (G.G. Byron «My Soul is Dark») |
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Tit for tat |
Зуб за зуб |
Betwixt and between |
Ні те, ні се |
Sing a song of sixpence A pocket full of rye; Four-and-twenty blackbirds Baked in a pie. When the pie was opened, The birds began to sing, Wasn’t that a dainty dish To set before the King? |
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Of course, using any of the given devices depends on the style of a text which is translated. Thus, scientific and official styles are devoid of stylistic colouring and using these devices isn’t their characteristic feature. While colloquial, publicist and belles-lettres styles can use the variety of them in order to fully convey the idea and content of the source language text.