- •Передмова
- •Contents:
- •I. Language and Extralinguistic World
- •II. Language as a Means of Communication
- •III. Translation Definitions
- •IV. Translation Varieties
- •It is possible to mark out the following problems of translation:
- •It is acceptable to define several essential measures that are accomplished by using the consecutive translation:
- •In comparison with the synchronous translation several advantages of the consecutive translation can be outlined:
- •In practice there are three varieties of simultaneous translation, that are related to to different types of translation:
- •In comparison with the consecutive translation such the advantages of the simultaneous translation can be named:
- •V. Basic Theories of Translation
- •VI. Stylization in the Process of Translation
- •VII. Stylistic Devices of Translation
- •The name of people is substituted by the name of a city or country:
- •VIII. Lexical Devices of Translation
- •Word-building:
- •Borrowings from the other languages.
- •Substitution that is dictated by social rules and substitution by Phraseological units.
- •IX. Transformations in translation
- •I.1. Transpositions.
- •I.2. Replacements.
- •II.1. Specification.
- •II.2. Generalization.
- •II.3. The method of lexical addition.
- •II.4. The method of omission.
- •II.5. The method of semantic development.
- •II.6. The method of integral transformation.
- •II.7. The method of compensation.
- •X. Translation of Phraseological Units
- •From Greek mythology:
- •4. From the contemporary literary or historical source relating to different languages (mainly to French, Spanish, Danish, German, Italian, Arabic):
- •XII. Translation of Proverbs and Sayings
- •XIII. Translation of Nationally Biased Lexicon
- •In the plane of one language:
- •In the plane of two languages:
- •1) On the character of text.
- •2) On importance of the nationally biased lexicon in a context.
- •3) On the character of the nationally biased lexicon.
- •4) On the source language or the target one.
- •5) On a reader of translation.
- •XIV. Literary Translation
- •XV. Translation of Poetry
- •Whether ‘tis nobler in the mind to suffer
- •W. Shakespeare «Sonnet lxvi».
- •Я кличу смерть – дивитися набридло
- •Я кличу смерть, нестерпне вже буття,
- •Озимандіас
- •Озимандія
- •Озимандія
- •Bibliography:
XIII. Translation of Nationally Biased Lexicon
The language of each nation is a living organism that is inseparably related to the history, culture and social life of people. Communicating with each other, native language speakers convey their culture by means of language and a translator is a key intermediary. It is undeniable that different nations perceive a world through the prism of their native language and, consequently, it conditions forming of nationally biased lexicon, that are characteristic of any language.
The excellent knowledge of grammar, phonetics, stylistics, vocabulary, as well as knowledge of cultural specific character of the source and target language are required from a translator.
Translation of the nationally biased lexicon is a part of the large and important problem of passing national and historical originality that derives form the beginning of the origin of the theory of translation as an independent science. The nationally biased lexicon belongs to non-equivalent vocabulary but is the part of the least studied linguistic units. Comparison of vocabulary of any foreign and native languages shows that lexical and grammatical units that have no equivalents in the target language are near to the linguistic units, which have single or numerous correspondences in the target language.
The units of foreign language that have no regular correspondences in the target language are called non-equivalent units. |
Non-equivalent vocabulary mainly turns out to be among neologisms, words that name specific notions and nationally biased lexicon, not popular names and names for which it is necessary to create occasional correspondences in the process of translation.
Within bounds of non-equivalent vocabulary the nationally biased lexicon is classified into the separate translating category. There are two main opinions of understanding this phenomenon, namely extralinguistic and linguistic one.
The supporters of extralinguistic approach consider the nationally biased lexicon as a totally extralinguistic phenomenon, determining it as the facts related to the events of public and cultural life of a country, peculiarities of its state order, national history etc.
The supporters of the linguistic approach considers that the relevant criterion of selecting the nationally biased lexicon is a brightly expressed nationally colouring, interrelationship with objective reality that is reflected in the consciousness of concrete lingvo-cultural community and, as a result of it, absence of correspondences in other languages.
The nationally biased lexicon is met mainly in belles-lettres literature, where it makes the elements of local and historical colouring. The nationally biased lexicon always belongs to the nation in the language of which it was born. It is adopted as «a guest» in the other languages that is used there for a day, a year or stays forever, enriching or leaving litter about language that accepted it. The nationally biased lexicon is always originated by a natural word-formation, and it is completely clear, as the nationally biased lexicon is folk words, that are mainly interrelated with the way of life of a nation. Thus,
The nationally biased lexicon is words and word-combinations of a folk language, which represent the name of objects, notions, phenomena that are characteristic of a geographical environment, culture, material way of life or social and historical peculiarities of a nation, country, tribe, and which, consequently, arise up as bearers of the national, local or historical colouring. Such words do not have exact correspondences in the other languages, and therefore, they cannot be translated «on the general basis», as the special approach to translation is required. |
In regard to the structure of the nationally biased lexicon, the researchers do not give simple answers to a question of what category of language devices should be related to it.
It is possible to relate nominative word-combinations, in other words such combinations of words that are semantically equaled to a word, to the nationally biased lexicon. Nominative word-combination can belong to the nationally biased lexicon as loan translations that are often equated with it, as long as loan translations represent the very same word-combinations.
The other form of nationally biased lexicon is shortenings or abbreviations. The inclusion of them to the nationally biased lexicon is very logical step, as they represent nominative word-combinations that are pulled together in one word.
The Phraseological units, in other words, stable expressions of all types, as well as idioms, proverbs and sayings, the most of which have national and historical colouring, are often related to the nationally biased lexicon.
The nationally biased lexicon is classified by: |
Objective characteristics.
Local characteristics (depending on national and language belonging).
The nationally biased lexicon that is classified by objective characteristics includes:
1) The geographical nationally biased lexicon:
a) Names of objects of physical geography, including meteorology: «steppe» (степ), «prairie» (прерія), «saline land» (солончак), «tornado» (торнадо) etc.
b) Names of the geographical objects related to the activity of a man: «polder» (польдер) (that is a drained plot of land defended by a dam), «aryk» (арик) (that is an irrigation or ditch in the Central Asia, Kazakhstan) etc.
c) Names of endemics (that is species of animal and plants met in the certain geographic area): «kiwi» (ківі), «sequoia» (секвоя), «pika» (піщундська сосна) etc.
2) The ethnographic nationally biased lexicon:
The Way of life:
A meal, drinks etc.: «shchi» (щі) (cabbage soup), «cheburek» (чебурек), «kumiss» (кумис), «cider» (сидр), «ale» (ель) etc.
Clothes (including shoes, head-dresses etc.) and adornments: «kimono» (кімоно), «sari» (сарі), «kokoshnik» (кокошник) etc.
Habitation, furniture, crockery and the other appliances: «izba» (хата), «yurta» (юрта), «amphora» (амфора) etc.
Transport (facilities and drivers): «ricksha» (рікша), «cab» (кеб), «landau» (ландо), «pirogue» (пірога), «gondolier» (гондольєр) etc.
Another things: «makhorka» (махорка), «sakwy» (сакви) etc.
Labour:
Men of labour: «brigadier» (бригадир), «farmer» (фермер), «groom» (грум, конюх), «concierge» (консьєржка) etc.
Implements: «machete» (мачете), «lasso» (ласо), «boomerang» (бумеранг) etc.
Labour organization: «kolkhoz» (колгосп), «ranch» (ранчо), «guild» (гільдія, цех) etc.
Art and culture:
Music and dances: «blues» (блюз), «tarantella» (тарантела), «reel» (ріл) etc.
Musical instruments etc.: «balalaika» (балалайка), «tomtom» (тамтам, гонг), «castanets» (кастаньєти), «banjo» (банджо) etc.
Folk-lore: «saga» (сага), «bylina» (билина), «chastooshka» (частівка) etc.
Theater: «mystery» (містерія), «harlequin» (арлекін), «Punch» (Петрушка) etc.
Performers: «troubadour» (трубадур), «kobza-player» (кобзар), «skomorokh» (скоморох) etc.
Customs and rituals: «vendetta» (вендета), «toast-master» (тамада), «рancake week» (масниця) etc.
Holidays and games: «Victory Day» (День Перемоги), «Easter» (Пасха), «Thanksgiving Day» (День Подяки), «lapta» (лапта), «cricket» (крикет) etc.
Mythology: «wood-goblin» (лісовик), «Santa Claus» (Санта Клаус), «Father Christmas» (Дід Мороз), «troll» (троль), «Valkyrie» (валькірія), «elf» (ельф) etc.
Cult (admirers and followers) and cult building and objects: «lama» (лама), «abbot» (абат), «pagoda» (пагода), «manna» (манна) etc.
Calendar: «September» (вересень), «Indian summer» (Бабине літо) etc.
Ethnic objects:
Nationalities: «Basque» (Баск), «Kazakh» (Казах) etc.
Nicknames (usually humorous and offensive): «cockney» (кокні), «gringo» (грінго, іноземець) etc.
Nameі of persons by the place of inhabitation: «kanaka» (канак), «oberdinets» (обердинець) etc.
Measures and money:
a) Units of measures: «arshine/arshin/arsheen» (аршин), «yard» (ярд), «pood» (пуд), «dessiatina» (десятина), «acre» (акр), «bushel» (бушель) etc.
b) Monetary units: «lev/lew» (лев), «r(o)uble» (рубль), «franc» (франк), «peso» (песо), «pound» (фунт), «sterling» (стерлінг), «dollar» (долар) etc.
с) Simple names of measures and money: «buck» (бакс), «five-kopeck coin» (п’ятак) etc.
3) The social and political nationally biased lexicon:
Administrative and territorial organization:
Administrative and territorial entity: «province» (губернія), «region» (область), «county/shire» (графство), «office of voevode» (воєводство) etc.
Inhabited localities: «сossack village/stanitsa» (станиця), «khutor» (хутор) etc.
Organs and public agents:
a) Authorities: «Seym» (Сейм), «Rada» (Рада), «municipality» (муніципалітет), «upper chamber/House of Lords» (верхня палата/Палата Лордів) etc.
b) Public agents: «chancellor» (канцлер), «Lord-Mayor» (лорд-мер), «hetman» (гетьман), «khan» (хан), «tsar/czar» (цар) etc.
The social and political life:
Political activity and political figures: «the Whigs» (Вігі), «the Tories» (Торі) etc.
Patriotic and public movements (and their participants): «guer(r)illa/partisan» (партизан), «Slavophil(e)» (Слав’янофіл) etc.
Social phenomena and movements (and their representatives): «business» (бізнес), «NEP (New Economic Policy)» (НЕП (Нова економічна політика)), «hippie/hippy» (хіпі) etc.
Ranks, titles, appeals: «bachelor» (бакалавр), «prince» (князь), «mister» (містер), «madam» (мадам) etc.
Establishments: «civilian registrar’s/registry office» (загс), «trade delegates» (торгове представництво) etc.
Educational organizations and cultural establishments: «ten-year secondary school» (десятирічка), «college» (коледж), «lyceum» (ліцей) etc.
Status and castes (and their members): «nobility/nobles» (дворянство), «merchant class» (купецтво), «Samurai» (самурай), «muzhik/moujik» (мужик) etc.
Class signs and symbols: «half moon» (півмісяць), «Union Jack» (Державний прапор Об’єднаного Королівства) etc.
The soldiery nationally biased lexicon:
Subdivision: «legion» (легіон), «horde» (орда), «phalanx» (фаланга) etc.
Weapon: «arbalest» (арбалет), «musket» (мушкет), «yataghan» (ятаган) etc.
Uniform: «helmet» (шолом), «chain armour» (кольчуга), «tunic/jacket with high collar» (кітель/мундир), «pea-jacket» (бушлат) etc.
Military personnel and commanders: «ataman» (отаман), «non-commissioned officer» (унтер-офіцер) etc.
The nationally biased lexicon that is classified by local characteristics (depending on national and language belonging) includes: