51 Сlassification of antonyms is given by в.Комиссаров

Antonyms have traditionally been defined as words of opposite meaning. This definition, however, is not sufficiently accurate as it only shifts the problem to the question of what words may be regarded as words of opposite meaning. Therefore the latest linguistic investigations emphasize, that antonyms are similar as words belonging to the same part of speech and the same semantic field, having the same grammatical meaning and functions, as well as similar collocations. [14]

According to their morphological structure antonyms may be classified into:

· root antonyms (having different roots): “to love” - “to hate”, “long” - “short”, “day” - “night”;

· derivational antonyms (having the same roots but different derivational affixes): “regular” - “irregular”, “fruitful” - “fruitless”.

Absolute or Root Antonyms So, V.N. Comissarov in his dictionary of antonyms classified them into two groups: absolute or root antonyms and derivational antonyms.

Absolute antonyms have different roots and derivational antonyms have the same roots but different affixes.

We can find in Collins Cobuild dictionary such definition: “The antonym of word is another word which means the opposite”.

There is another term, which is quit interesting to our opinion: “Words that are antonymous are opposite in meaning.”

Such, the pair of words should be called antonymous, but one of them, which is not always just one, has a name antonym. Kinds and examples of root antonyms are observed in the second part of the Course Paper. But in the theoretical part we want to refer to a very interesting source.

In dealing with antonymic oppositions it may be helpful to treat antonyms in terms of “marked” and “unmarked” members. The unmarked member can be more widely used and very often can include the referents of the marked member but not vice versa. This proves that their meanings have some components in common. In the antonymic pair `old” - “young” the unmarked member is old. We've found an interesting example on one of studied sources:

“It is possible to ask: “How old is the girl?”, without implying that she is no longer young. “Some authors, J.Lyons among them, suggest a different terminology. They distinguish antonyms proper and complementary antonyms. The chief characteristic feature of antonyms proper is that they are regularly gradable. Antonyms proper, therefore, represent contrary notions. Grading is based on the operation of comparison. One can compare the intensity of feeling as in love -- attachment -- liking -- indifference -- antipathy -- hate. Whenever a sentence contains an antonym or an antonymic pair, it implicitly or explicitly contains comparison.”

Thus, discussing the group of root antonyms, we should to speak about complementary antonyms and contrary notions, a semantic classification of antonyms

52 What process is called as neologisms? Describe the different types of neologisms.

The rapid progress and development of technology, science and Internet required “new words and terms” which have appeared in the English language. This process is called as neologisms and especially used in nomination not only new objects, inventions but also the naming of new concepts which have taken on а new cultural context. The origin is the Greek word “ neo – “new” + logos – “word, term, phrase” which have been recently created (coined) often to apply to new concepts, or to reshape older terms in newer language form.

The famous linguist R. Berchfield which worked at compiling a four-volume supplement to NED (New English Dictionary) said, “that averagely 800 neologisms appear every year in Modern English. It has also become a language-giver recently, especially with the development of computerization” [Berchfield: 1991, 123].

Neologisms can refer to an existing word or phrase which has been assigned a new meaning. They are often created by combining existing word or by giving words new and unique suffixes and prefixes. Now neologisms are relating to computers and the internet, for example, the word “cybersick/ness/” (a feeling of illness caused by using a computer for long periods of time).

The extra-linguistic causes are determined by the social nature of the language: they are observed in changes of meaning resulting from the development of the notion expressed and the thing named and by the appearance of new notions and things. In other words, extra-linguistic causes of semantic change are connected with the development of the human mind as it moulds reality to conform with its needs.

Neologisms can develop in main way when a lexical unit existing in the language can change its meaning to denote a new object or phenomenon which already has some lexical unit to denote it. For, instance, Macmillan English Dictionary (New Edition) presents the new lexical meanings of the existed compound words in the language.

• Civil partnership – 1) a relationship between a man and woman having

no legal status; 2) a relation similar to marriage for two people who are the same sex. (the new legislation that allows same-sex couples to marry).

• Designer baby – 1) a baby whose parents dress it in designer clothes; 2) a

human baby created using method that allows parents to choose certain genes in order to save or treat another child before is born. (This term is especially used in newspapers).

• Boomerang kid – 1) a child is returned home; 2) an adult child who returns

home after university, their first job or the end relationship because they have no money or job.

A new lexical unit can be introduced to denote a new object or phenomenon. In this case we have «a proper neologism», many of them are cases of new terminology.

Here we can point out several semantic groups of neologisms connected with computerization:

• to denote different types of computers, e.g. PC, super-computer, multi-user,

neurocomputer /analogue of a human brain/;

• to denote parts of computers, e.g. hardware, software, monitor, screen, data,

vapourware / experimental samples of computers for exhibition, not for production/;

• to denote computer languages, e.g. BASIC, Algol FORTRAN etc;

• to denote notions connected with work on computers, e.g. computerman,

computerization, computerize, to troubleshoot, to blitz out / to ruin data in a computer’s memory/.

New lexical units are primarily used by university teachers, newspaper reporters, by those who are connected with mass media. There are also different types of activities performed with the help of computers, many of them are formed with the help of the morpheme «tele», e.g. to telework, to telecommute (to work at home having a computer which is connected with the enterprise for which one works). There are also such words as telebanking, telemarketing, teleshopping (when you can perform different operations with the help of your computer without leaving your home); when all operations are registered by the computer at your bank – videobank

(it is computerized telephone which registers all information which is received in your absence).

In the sphere of lingusitics we have such neologisms as: machine translation, interlingual (an artificial language for machine translation into several languages) and many others.

Many new words have come from medicine and biological science, e.g. biologically engineered, genetically modified. In the sphere of medicine computers we have the following neologisms: telemonitory unit /a telemonitory system for treating patients at a distance.

In the sphere of biometrics we have computerized machines which can recognize characteristic features of people seeking entrance: finger-print scanner, biometric eye-scanner (blood-vessel arrangements in eyes), voice verification (voice patterns). These are types of biometric locks. Here we can also mention computerized cards with the help of which we can open the door without a key.

In connection with criminalization of towns in UK voluntary groups of assisting the police were formed where dwellers of the neighbourhood are joined. These groups are called «neighbourhood watch», «home watch». Criminals wear «stocking masks» not to be recognized.

With the development of professional jargons a lot of words ending in «speak» appeared in English, e.g. artspeak, sportspeak, medspeak, education-speak, video-speak, cable-speak etc.

There are different semantic groups of neologisms belonging to everyday life:

• food e.g. «starter»/ instead of «hors d’oevres»/, macrobiotics ( raw vegetables),

microwave stove, consumer electronics, fridge-freezer, hamburgers (beef-, cheese-, fish-, veg- );

• clothing, e.g. catsuit (one-piece clinging suit), slimster , string ( miniscule

bikini), completenik (a long sweater for trousers), sweatnik (a long jacket), pants-skirt, bloomers / lady’s sports trousers/;

• footwear e.g. winklepickers (shoes with long pointed toes), thongs (open

sandals), backsters (beech sandals with thick soles);

• bags, e.g. bumbag (a small bag worn on the waist), sling bag (a bag with a long

belt), maitre (a small bag for cosmetics).

Neologisms can be also classified according to the ways they are formed. They are subdivided into: phonological neologisms, borrowings, semantic neologisms and syntactical neologisms. Syntactical neologisms are divided into morphological /word-building/ and phraseological neologisms.

Phonological neologisms are formed by combining unique combinations of sounds which are called artificial, e.g. rah-rah (a short skirt which is worn by girls during parades).

The productive structural patterns of Neologisms are formed according to the borrowings from another language, for example, Russian words: sputnik, spaceship, space rocket.

Morphological and syntactical neologisms are usually built on patterns existing in the language, therefore they do not belong to the group of strong neologisms.

Among morphological neologisms there are a lot of compound words of different types, such as «free-fall» – appeared with the stock market crash in October 1987 (on the analogy with free-fall of parachutists, which is the period between jumping and opening the chute).

There are also abbreviations of different types, such as resto, teen /teenager/, dinky /dual income no kids yet/, ARC /AIDS-related condition, infection with AIDS/, HIV / human immuno-deficiency virus/.

Quite a number of neologisms appear on the analogy with lexical units existing in the language, e.g. snowmobile (automobile), danceaholic (alcoholic), airtel (hotel), cheeseburger (hamburger), autocade (cavalcade).

There are many neologisms formed by means of affixation, such as: decompress, to disimprove, overhoused, educationalist, slimster, folknik etc.

Phraseological neologisms can be subdivided into phraseological units with transferred meanings, e.g. 1) Trojan horse – a person or thing that is used to trick an enemy in order to achieve a secret purpose; to buy into (to become involved), fudge and dudge (avoidance of definite decisions 2) a computer program that is designed to destroy data, it is a type of virus. Origin came from the story in which the ancient Greeks hid inside a hollow wooden statue of horse in order to enter the city of their enemies, Troy. Set non-idiomatic expressions, e.g. electronic virus, retail park, acid rain, boot trade etc.

The intense development of science, technology and industry has called the intention and introduction of an immense number of new words with the new meanings.