Principles of Classification.

The idioms can be classified on the basis of different principles. The traditional and the oldest principle for classification is based on their original content and it might be termed as thematic. On this principle they are classified according to their sources of origin, referring to different spheres of human activity, life of nature, natural phenomena etc.

Prof. L.P. Smith distinguishes idioms connected with the sea, agriculture, wild and domestic animals, art, etc. E.g.: in deep waters (in trouble), couch potato (about a man who spends a lot of time watching television), crocodile tears (insincere tears for effect only) etc.

English idioms have many colloquial expressions with parts of human body which are called somatic phrases or it can be introduced as somatism. E.g.: face to face (person to person), to lose one’s head (panic, lose control), under one’s nose (very close, easily noticed), easy on the eye (pleasant to look at) etc.

In modern linguistics, there is considerable confusion about the terminology associated with these word-groups. Most Russian scholars use the term “phraseological unit” which was first introduced by Academician V.V. Vinogradov.

There are many phraseological units and the differences between them are also a lot. That’s why it is important to say that phraseological units, or idioms, have different classifications based on their phraseology have been described by many authors. The most comprehensive are the doctoral theses of N.N. Amosova and A.V. Koonin. The detailed groups are given in the books on English idioms by L.P. Smith and W. Ball. The most significant theories advanced for Russian Phraseology are those by V.V. Vinogradov.

Semantic Classification of Phraseological Units.

Phraseological units can be classified according to the degree of motivation of their meaning. This classification was suggested by Academician V.V. Vinogradov for Russian phraseological units. He pointed out three types of phraseological units: phraseological combinations, phraseological unities, phraseological fusions

(фразеологические сочетания, единства и сращения).

Phraseological combinations are word-groups with a partially changed meaning. They may be said to be clearly motivated, i.e. the meaning of the unit can be easily deduced from the meaning of its constituents. E.g.: to have a bite, to be a good hand at smth, bitter truth, swam neck, dog’s life, to skate on thin ice (to take risks) etc.

Phraseological unities are word-groups with a completely changed meaning i.e. meaning of the unit does not correspond to meanings of its constituent parts. They are motivated units, where the meaning of the whole unit can be guessed from the meanings of its components, but it is transferred (metaphorical or metonymical). E.g.: to play the first fiddle (to be a leader in something), to stick to one’s word (to promise), old salt (experienced sailor), to lose one’s heart to smb (to fall in love). Collocations where words are combined in their original meaning but their combinations are different in different languages, e.g. cash and carry - (self-service shop), in a big way (in great degree) etc.

Phraseological fusions are word-groups with completely changed meanings, they are not motivated units, we cannot guess the meaning of the whole from the meanings of its components. These phrases are highly idiomatic and cannot be translated word for word into other languages. E.g.: a white feather, to cut somebody dead means (to rudely ignore somebody, to pretend not to know or recognize him); a skeleton in the cupboard (a shameful or dangerous family secret); to come a cropper (to come to a disaster); red tape (bureaucratic methods: official rules that seem more complicated than necessary and prevent things from being done quickly). The origin is from the custom of tying up official documents with red or pink tape.

Structural Classification of Phraseological Units.

Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky worked out structural classification of phraseological units, comparing them with words. He points out one-top units which he compares with derived words because derived words have only one root morpheme. He points out two-top units which he compares with compound words because in compound words we usually have two root morphemes.

Among one-top units he points out three structural types;

a) units of the type «to give up» (verb + postposition type), e.g. to art up, to back up, to drop out, to nose out, to buy into, to sandwich in etc.;

b) units of the type «to be tired» . Some of these units remind the Passive Voice in their structure but they have different prepositions with them, while in the Passive Voice we can have only prepositions «by» or «with», e.g. to be tired of, to be interested in, to be surprised at etc.

c) prepositional – nominal phraseological units. These units are equivalents of unchangeable words: prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs, that is why they have no grammar centre, their semantic centre is the nominal part, e.g. on the doorstep (quite near), on the nose (exactly), in the course of, on the stroke of, on time, in time, on the point of etc.

Among two-top units A.I. Smirnitsky points out the following structural types:

a) attributive-nominal such as: a month of Sundays, grey matter, a millstone round one’s neck and many others. Units of this type are noun equivalents and can be partly or perfectly idiomatic. In partly idiomatic units (phrasisms) sometimes the first component is idiomatic, e.g. high road, in other cases the second component is idiomatic, e.g. first night. In many cases both components are idiomatic, e.g. red tape, blind alley, bed of nail, shot in the arm and many others.

b) verb-nominal phraseological units, e.g. to read between the lines, to sweep under the carpet etc. The grammar centre of such units is the verb, the semantic centre in many cases is the nominal component, e.g. to fall in love. In some units the verb is both the grammar and the semantic centre, e.g. not to know the ropes. These units can be perfectly idiomatic as well, e.g. to burn one’s boats, to vote with one’s feet, to take to the cleaners’ etc.

c) phraseological repetitions, such as: now or never, part and parcel , country and western etc. Such units can be built on antonyms, e.g. ups and downs, back and forth; often they are formed by means of alliteration, e.g. cakes and ale, as busy as a bee.