3. Means of substitution and their analysis.

We are to examine certain groups of deictical units as different types of substitutions, taking into consideration their textual – forming functions. Substitutional words have a function of substitution both in lexical and syntactical relations, providing the structural completeness of the sentence and serve as extra means for more detailed and interesting description of the main characters in literary texts.

The classification of deixis may be set like this:

1) Referring expressions – are words whose meaning can only be discovered by referring to other words or to elements of the context, which are clear to both sender and receiver. The most obvious example of them is third person pronouns (she/ her/ hers/ herself; he/ him/ his/ himself; it/ its/ itself; they them/ their/ theirs/ themselves).

2) Substitution – is another kind of formal link between sentences, like do or so, for a word or group of words which have appeared in an earlier sentence. The use of substitution, as we can see from the examples above, is quite reasonable - in order to avoid long grammatical forms of expression.

3) Conjunctions – are words and phrases, which explicitly draw attention to the type of relationship which exists between one sentence or clause and another. In all these examples conjunctions play different functions: add more information to what had already been said; contrast new information; put another side to the argument.

4) Párallelism is a devise which suggests a connection, simply because the form of one sentence or clause repeats the form of another. This is often used in speeches, prayers, poetry, and advertisements.

5) Structure – word “it”. In some syntactic constructions the element “it “ occupies the position of this or that constituting part of the sentence–type and takes upon itself the grammatical function of the fillers for the substituted position. The formal subject “it” in given examples is surely meaningful as it replaces the real subject of the sentence and represents the latter in its grammatical function. The relations between the formal “it” and the clause or the non – finite phrase, which it represents grammatically, are appositive in character because we can admit that the content of “it” is equivalent to the element it replaces.

6) The substituting “one” functions as pronominal as far as it replaces the nominals in its syntactic position and function. It is meaningful grammatically and shares the same content with the nominals it replaces. The pro – element “one” is used in the given examples mostly for expressiveness and avoiding the repetitions in the text.

7) Contextual pronominalization is, in fact, meaningful substituition of semantic and cohesive value. The pronominal in such cases substitutes not a nounal element but a semantically substantive one, regardless its formal characteristics and status. The antecedent can be a word, a word- group, a clause and even a fragment of the text. This type of deixis occurs as object-elements with the verbs of objective valency in case the reciprocity of the action requires manifestation.

8) Repetition of words and lexical chains can create the same sort of chain as pronouns, it happens where synonymous or more general words or phrases are used. This type of deixis is used here in order to avoid the monotony, but to show the “elegance” of the language.

9) Wh – phrases are traditionally defined as relative and conjunctive pronouns or adverbs. The wh – pronouns and wh – adverbs resemble “one” and “that” (but the latter replace the noun – phrase partially by representing the N – head itself in the frame of the simple sentence as a rule). Here, the wh – pronominals manifest the complexation of prepositional deep-structures by representing the real antecedent in its syntactic function in the structure of another clause, with its content being implied.

Substitution always leads to the achievement of the structural completeness of a syntactic model (utterance or sentence) while the omission (ellipsis) leads to structural incompleteness. In the English language exist special structural words, which gain distributive and nominative lexical meaning of the substituted words in some cases, i.e. they are apprehended syntactically and lexically as the words already mentioned.

Task 5. Analyze the given example sentences and match them with the types of substitution listed above:

1. ”Rosina was wearing a sort of tweedy cloak, with slits through which she had thrust her bare forearms. Her hands were covered with rings, her wrists with bracelets, which were glinting as she lightly tapped her fingers together”.

2. ”It was not envisaging pain that made me feel shattered, it was just experience of the change itself”.

3. “Real love is free and sane. Obsession, romance, does one grow out of them? Lizzie and I used to talk about that”.

4. “I thought of myself quite clearly, with a precision which involved my whole body, I have only to step quickly forward and pitch that hateful thug over the edge. He may be stronger, but I am more agile. He cannot swim, and even a good swimmer would die at once in that boiling cauldron. No one sees us. I can say he attacked me. I have only to push him in and all my troubles are over. As I thought all this, I was fixing Ben with my eyes.