2. Render the text in Russian. Text d. Elements of a Building. Roofs and Floors

1. Scan the text and name the main types of roofs and floors.

A roof is the covering on the uppermost part of a building. Depending upon the nature of the building, the roof may also protect against heat, against sunlight, against cold and against wind. There are so many different types of roofs available. Any discussion of different types should include two aspects of roof type - the shape of the roof itself and the roofing material used to cover it. The shape is determined by the design of the house. The materials used are also quite varied and may be determined by things like cost, climate, neighborhood covenants, local building codes.

Common types of roofs include lean-to, flat, front or side gabled, cross gabled, pyramid, mansard, tent, hip and more. These are all descriptions of the roof shape, but within each shape, there are many variations as well. Another way to look at roof types is the roofing materials themselves. Examples of commonly used materials include asphalt shingle, wood shake, tile and man made versions of these materials. Tile, metal, and other man made materials tend to cost a bit more but also tend to be the most durable. Traditional materials such as asphalt shingles and wood shakes are usually less expensive but not quite as durable.

Floors divide the building into stories. They form the basic structural components of a building, together with ceilings and walls, The construction of the floors in a building depends on the basic structural frame that is used.

A wide variety of materials is used in modern floors. Concrete and wooden floors are usually covered with carpets, rugs, and other floorings for aesthetic reasons and to increase durability of the surface, absorption of sound, and ease of maintenance. Wood is still extensively used in residences, especially as parquets (short, hard pieces of wood assembled in geometric patterns). Wood tiles and prefabricated parquets can easily be installed on existing floors.

Tiles also play an important role in modern buildings and homes. Of all floor coverings, they are the most resistant to water and humidity, and they are easy to clean. Glazed ceramic tiles are used wherever highly sanitary conditions are required, such as in hospitals, laboratories, swimming pools, and public toilets. In the home, tiles are used on the floors and walls of kitchens and bathrooms. Synthetic, resilient floorings include linoleum, asphalt tiles, vinyl asbestos and pure vinyl tiles and rubber

Notes:

gabled roof - остроконечная крыша

asphalt shingle - рубероидная кровельная плитка

Section II. Lexical - Grammar Tests.

Для того, чтобы правильно выполнить контрольные работы, необходимо усвоить следующий грамматический материал:

1. Видо-временные формы глагола:

а) активный залог - формы Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect (Present, Past, Future).

б) пассивный залог - формы Indefinite (Present, Past, Future). Особенности перевода пассивных конструкций на русский язык.

2. Модальные глаголы can, may, must и их эквиваленты.

3. Простые неличные формы глагола:

Participle I (Present Participle), Participle II (Past Participle) в функциях определения и обстоятельства.Герундий (Gerund).

Test 1. Constructing a Skyscraper

New methods in the design and construction of skyscrapers have been closely related to the development of computers. Engineers use computers to solve the complex mathematical problems involved in such construction projects by breaking the design down. into a limited number of pre-calculated elements.

Before construction begins, engineers determine the strength of the soils that will be lie underneath the new building. With this information they can design the proper foundation. After the building site is cleared, leveled and drained of water, excavation begins. Ground made of rock may be excavated by blasting.

Sometimes workers dig a trench of all sides of the foundation and fill it with concrete before excavation begins. Any excavation that may cave in is braced and shored with wood or steel. Pumps can be used to keep water from the excavation area at all times. But if the soil becomes too watery, caissons may be built so the work can continue.

After the excavation is finished the footings and the superstructure are built. Most steel used in the superstructure, such as beams, girders, and columns, comes prefabricated. Each piece of steel should have a number indicating the exact place where it should be used. When the steel is raised into place, workers fasten the pieces together temporarily with bolts. Later, welders and riveters join these pieces together permanently.

Many kinds of derricks and cranes are used in the construction of skyscrapers. The two main kinds are mobile cranes and tower cranes. Mobile cranes can manoeuvre around the outside of the building to hoist material and equipment from various locations. Tower cranes can only add hoist materials positioned within the maximum radius of their lifting mechanisms. Some tower cranes can add sections to increase the height of their support tower as the building goes up. Others are mounted directly on the recently constructed upper stores of the building’s framework. They can use a “telescoping” tower mechanism to “jump” up with successive floors as they are constructed. A derrick, mobile crane, or even a helicopter can help in removing sections of a tower crane once the building is nearly complete.

After workers complete the superstructure and outside walls, the building is ready to be finished, decorated, and furnished.

Notes:

pre-calculated – заранее просчитанный

caisson - кессон (ограждающая конструкция для создания в водонасыщенном грунте рабочего пространства)

manoeuvre - маневрировать, выводить

to fasten – скреплять, закреплять

Test 2. Prefabricated Construction

Prefabrication has become an important part of most types of building construction. Prefabricated sections of a building are produced in large quantities in a factory and then shipped to various construction sites. This procedure may allow work to continue despite poor weather conditions and should reduce any waste in time and material at the site. As a result, costs are lowered and construction time decreases

Many types of building sections can be prefabricated. For example, entire walls may be prefabricated for a wooden-frame house. Huge wooden arches are prefabricated for use as supports in churches, gymnasiums, and other buildings. Concrete beams, floors, roofs and wall panels may be pre-cast for many types of structures.

The factory produced prefabricated components can be classified by size and weight. Small units, such as a concrete block, can be handled by one man; medium size units such as a floor or wall panel can be handled by simple mechanical equipment; large prefabricated units, such as a mobile house, can be handled only by heavy mechanical equipment. Large units are moved by cranes and even helicopters.

The level of industrialization and the need of the building industry in a particular country have been the two primary factors affecting the use of prefabrication. In the former USSR, for instance, most apartment houses built after World War II relied heavily on the use of large prefabricated elements. In Europe, prefabricated elements have been used for apartment houses, although to a much lesser extent than in the USSR. The building industry in the United States has been much more reluctant to accept the advantages of presstresing with prefabrication.

Prefabricated structures are sometimes made by process called modular construction, first used in Japan. Modular construction refers to the use of a standard measurements as the basis for all building materials. The size of the module may vary considerably from country to country. In the United States, the basic module is 10 centimetres. All building parts are designed so that each dimension equals either this measurement or some multiple of it. Such standardization of building parts can allow all parts to fit together with few alterations. Modular parts are also used in buildings that are not prefabricated.

Notes:

prefabrication – заводское изготовление сборных конструкций

pre-cast –заводского изготовления, блочного сборного типа

apartment houses – многоквартирные дома

modular construction – модульная конструкция