Text 19

1. Выпишите в свой словарик с транскрипцией и переведите выделенные жирным шрифтом слова (в начальной форме: сущ. и прил. – в им.п., ед.ч; глаг. - инфинитив). Назовите, к какой части речи относится каждое слово.

2. Выпишите неправильные глаголы, встречающиеся в тексте. Назовите все формы.

3. Укажите время и залог подчёркнутых сказуемых.

4. Переведите текст, пользуясь словарем.

Precedent

In common law legal systems, a precedent or authority is a legal case establishing a principle or rule that a court or other judicial body utilizes when deciding subsequent cases with similar issues or facts.

Precedent that must be applied or followed is known as binding precedent (alternately mandatory precedent, mandatory or binding authority, etc.). Under the doctrine of stare decisis, a lower court must honor findings of law made by a higher court that is within the appeals path of cases the court hears. In state and federal courts in the United States, jurisdiction is often divided geographically among local trial courts, several of which fall under the territory of a regional appeals court. All appellate courts fall under a supreme court. By definition, decisions of lower courts are not binding on each other or any courts higher in the system, nor are appeals court decisions binding on each other or on local courts that fall under a different appeals court. Further, courts must follow their own proclamations of law made earlier on other cases, and honor rulings made by other courts in disputes among the parties before them pertaining to the same pattern of facts or events, unless they have a strong reason to change these rulings. One law professor has described mandatory precedent as follows:

In extraordinary circumstances a higher court may overturn or overrule mandatory precedent, but will often attempt to distinguish the precedent before overturning it, thereby limiting the scope of the precedent in any event.

Precedent that is not mandatory but which is useful or relevant is known as persuasive precedent (or persuasive authority or advisory precedent). Persuasive precedent includes cases decided by lower courts, by peer or higher courts from other geographic jurisdictions, cases made in other parallel systems (for example, military courts, administrative courts, indigenous/tribal courts, State courts versus Federal courts in the United States), and in some exceptional circumstances, cases of other nations, treaties, world judicial bodies, etc.

In a case of first impression, courts often rely on persuasive precedent from courts in other jurisdictions that have previously dealt with similar issues. Persuasive precedent may become binding through the adoption of the persuasive precedent by a higher court.

Text 20

1. Выпишите в свой словарик с транскрипцией и переведите выделенные жирным шрифтом слова (в начальной форме: сущ. и прил. – в им.п., ед.ч; глаг. - инфинитив). Назовите, к какой части речи относится каждое слово.

2. Выпишите неправильные глаголы, встречающиеся в тексте. Назовите все формы.

3. Укажите время и залог подчёркнутых сказуемых.

4. Переведите текст, пользуясь словарем.